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Morphologic diversity was studied in 129 species of lacertid lizards and their relationship with ecology by means of comparative analysis on seven linear morphometric measurements. Body size is the most important variable determining, a continuum among small bodied species and larger ones independently evolved through the lacertid phylogeny. This variable is strongly and positively correlated with the others masking the patterns of morphologic diversity. Multivariate analysis on size-adjusted variables show a negative covariation among relative tail and limb length. Remarkably, arboreal and semiarboreal species (Takydromus and the Equatorial African clade) appeared two times independently during the evolution of lacertids and are characterized by extremely long tails, and relatively long forelimbs in comparison with hindlimb length. The arboreal and glider lizard Holaspis with their short tail constitute the only exception. Another case of convergence is found by some species dwelling into dense vegetation or grass (Tropidosaura, Lacerta agilis, Takydromus amurensis or Zootoca) which have long tails and short limbs. On the opposite, species living in deserts, steppes or scrublands with scarce vegetation isolated into extended open areas have developed long hindlimbs and short forelimbs to achieve higher speed and maneuverability This is especially the case of Acanthodactylus and Eremias.

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Abstract The Equatorial African group of lacertids comprises nine species which share a number of derived features and appear to constitute a holophyletic assemblage. Revision of the group using morphological characters analyzed by parsimony and compatibility methods results in the following taxonomic changes: Lacerta jacksoni = Adolfus jacksoni, Lacerta echinata = Gastropholis echinata, Bedriagaia tropidopholis = Gastropholis tropidopholis, Bedriagaia moreavi = Gastropholis prasina, the latter species being validated and removed from the synonymy of Gastropholis vittata. Adolfus jacksoni has most features in common with the hypothetical ancestor of the group, while Holaspis guentheri and the species of Gastropholis are the most derived forms. Geographical variation in Adolfus alleni is described and what is known of the ecology of the Equatorial group summarized. Most are forest dwellers with the majority of the more primitive forms living on tree boles and among litter and timber on the forest floor (Adolfus jacksoni, A. africanus, A. vauereselli). Another, Holaspis guentheri, is confined to tree boles but glides between them, while the species of Gastropholis appear to be climbers in flimsy vegetation and Adolfus alleni is ground-dwelling above the tree line. Many of the morphological features characterizing these lizards appear to be functionally related to their particular habitats.

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Holaspis is the most morphologically apomorphic lacertid taxon with 42 or more derived morphological features arising on its exclusive lineage. Nearly all of these confer advantages in three specialised activities, or ameliorate problems resulting from them. The activities are: climbing on the often vertical open surfaces on tree boles and branches, utilising very narrow crevices in wood and beneath bark, and the ability, unique among lacertids, to glide from tree to tree. Although many of the features related to these activities are likely to result from direct adaptation to the situations concerned, exaptation has been critical in the development of gliding. Two behaviours present in the earliest lacertids have been coopted to this activity: rib spreading associated with basking contributes to an effective aerofoil, and balance control associated with running helps maintain appropriate posture in the air. Features originally developed in the context of crevice use also contribute to the aerofoil and a high surface: weight ratio. So, while natural selection has moulded Holaspis for its present activities, multiple accidents of history have also been important, as they also have in the evolution of bird flight.

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Differences in surface structure (ober- hautchen) of body scales of lacertid lizards involve cell size, shape and surface profile, presence or absence of fine pitting, form of cell margins, and the occurrence of longitudinal ridges and pustular projections. Phylogenetic information indicates that the primitive pattern involved narrow strap-shaped cells, with low posteriorly overlapping edges and relatively smooth surfaces. Deviations from this condition produce a more sculptured surface and have developed many times, although subsequent overt reversals are uncommon. Like variations in scale shape, different patterns of dorsal body microornamentation appear to confer different and conflicting performance advantages. The primitive pattern may reduce friction during locomotion and also enhances dirt shedding, especially in ground-dwelling forms from moist habitats. However, this smooth microornamentation generates shine that may compromise cryptic coloration, especially when scales are large. Many derived features show correlation with such large scales and appear to suppress shine. They occur most frequently in forms from dry habitats or forms that climb in vegetation away from the ground, situations where dirt adhesion is less of a problem. Microornamentation differences involving other parts of the body and other squamate groups tend to corroborate this functional interpretation. Microornamentation features can develop on lineages in different orders and appear to act additively in reducing shine. In some cases different combinations may be optimal solutions in particular environments, but lineage effects, such as limited reversibility and different developmental proclivities, may also be important in their genesis. The fine pits often found on cell surfaces are unconnected with shine reduction, as they are smaller than the wavelengths of most visible light.

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In this paper we deal on the ultraviolet color (invisible to us): where we can find it, the capability of animals to see it and the advantages that this color perception offers to them. As the simplest way to detect it is the photography, we describe and review how to photograph the UV, as a result of 15 years of amateur experience, searching and testing nearly in complete blindness due to the lack of practical information about “how to do it”. We describe the different kinds of photography (chemical and digital); the cameras and objectives suitable (both astronomically expensive ones and cheap options); what are the best characteristics that the objectives should have for this purpose; the films suitable for their use in chemical photography; the different filters (current or discontinued) manufactured along the years; and the subtle combinations among the different materials to obtain pure UV photographs. This kind of scientific photography is mainly used in forensics, forgery detection, art dermatology and less in Natural History, despite the fact that a great part of animals see this color and use it in important questions of their biology as the social behavior, mate choice or the food search.

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The sclerotic ring consists of several bones that form in the sclera of many reptiles. This element has not been well studied in squamates, a diverse order of reptiles with a rich fossil record but debated phylogeny. Squamates inhabit many environments, display a range of behaviours, and have evolved several different body plans. Most importantly, many species have secondarily lost their sclerotic rings. This research investigates the presence of sclerotic rings in squamates and traces the lineage of these bones across evolutionary time. We compiled a database on the presence/absence of the sclerotic ring in extinct and extant squamates and investigated the evolutionary history of the sclerotic ring and how its presence/absence and morphology is correlated with environment and behaviour within this clade. Of the 400 extant species examined (59 families, 214 genera), 69% have a sclerotic ring. Those species that do not are within Serpentes, Amphisbaenia, and Dibamidae. We find that three independent losses of the sclerotic ring in squamates are supported when considering both evolutionary and developmental evidence. We also show that squamate species that lack, or have a reduced, sclerotic ring, are fossorial and headfirst burrowers. Our dataset is the largest squamate dataset with measurements of sclerotic rings, and supports previous findings that size of the ring is related to both environment occupied and behaviour. Specifically, scotopic species tend to have both larger inner and outer sclerotic ring apertures, resulting in a narrower ring of bone than those found in photopic species. Non-fossorial species also have a larger sclerotic ring than fossorial species. This research expands our knowledge of these fascinating bones; with further phylogenetic analyses scleral ossicles could become an extremely useful character trait for inferring the behaviour of fossil squamates.

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The epidermal glands of lizards are considered an important source of semiochemicals involved in lizard communication. Many features of the lizard epidermal gland system vary among and within species (e.g., gland number, size, and shape), and some are believed to reflect the degree of intra- and interspecific variation in glandular secretion production, and by extension, the chemical signalling investment of lizards. Traditionally, herpetologists estimate secretion production based on the number of glands or the size of the glands, rather than quantifying the amount of secretion produced. Still, the reliability of these proxies for secretion production has never been validated. Here, I explored the relationship among secretion production (in mass), pore size (surface area, diameter), and gland number in three species of lacertid lizards (Acanthodactylus boskianus, Timon lepidus, Holaspis guentheri), and tested which proxies predicted secretion production variation best, and examined whether the same trend is true for all species. The findings of this study show that the total secretion production of lacertids is highly variable among and within species. Variation in secretion production among-species (but not within-species) could partly be explained by variation in body size. While both measures of pore size were positively related with secretion production, my tests revealed the model with only pore diameter as contributing variable explaining absolute secretion production variation (both within and across species) as the best one. Although gland number appeared a suboptimal estimate for secretion production in the three lacertids under study, only family-wide, multi-species comparative tests counting large within-species sample sizes can provide further insight on the matter.

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Animals communicate via a variety of sensory channels and signals. Studies on acoustic and visual communication systems suggest that differences in the physical environment contribute to the variety of signalling behaviour, with species investing in those signals that are transmitted best under the local conditions. Whether or not environmental tuning also occurs in chemical communication systems has received much less attention. In the present study, we examined the effect of several aspects of the physical environment on the chemical communication system of lacertid lizards (family Lacertidae). The numbers of femoral pores are used as a proxy reflecting how much a particular species invests in and relies upon chemical signalling. Femoral pores are specialized epidermal structures that function as a secretion channel for the waxy substance produced by glands. In some lacertid species, the secretion carries infochemicals that play an important role in social communication. The number of femoral pores varies considerably among species. We have compiled data on femoral pore numbers for 162 species and tested for the effects of climate and substrate use. After correcting for body size and taking the phylogenetic relationships among the species into account, we found no effect of climate conditions or latitude on species pore numbers. Substrate use did affect pore numbers: shrub-climbing species tended to have fewer femoral pores than species inhabiting other substrates.

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During several herpetological surveys in the forested southeast of the Republic of Guinea (Guinée Forestière) we recorded 64 species of reptiles (two chelonian, 16 lizard and 45 snake species as well as one crocodile species. They are presented in a commented list with documentation of the respective voucher material and with taxonomic and/or ecological information. Our record of the softshell turtle Trionyx triunguis is the second one for Guinea and the first for Guinée Forestière, the forest-dwelling gecko Cnemaspis occidentalis and the lacertid lizard Holaspis guentheri are likewise the respective second Guinean record of these species. The Forest Nile Monitor Varanus ornatus is documented for the first time in Guinea. The ground boa Calabaria reinhardtii is again the second country record but the only voucher specimen available for study. Moreover, we present a country-wide checklist of the reptiles of the Republic of Guinea combining literature records with our own material. It documents the occurrence of 128 reptilian species (seven chelonian, 30 lizard, 88 snake and three crocodile species). Remarkable are photographic records of a probably new, undescribed gecko species of the genus Hemidactylus. The skink Trachylepis keroanensis, formerly a synonym of T. perroteti, proved to be a distinct species belonging to the T. buettneri/sudanensis group. Finally, we provide a list of fishes found in Ziama Forest partly recovered from the stomachs of natricid snakes.

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A recent herpetological collection in Cameroon yielded some 28 anuran, 16 lizard and 10 snake species. The species are listed and commented on under faunistical, taxonomical, ecological and zoogeographical aspects. Notes and corrections as to 7 other species listed in previous surveys are included. Specimens of Agama sankaranica, Mabuya buettneri, Panaspis aloysiisabaudiae and Lycophidion irroratum are first records from Came- roon. Noteworthy species are also Bufo villiersi, Adolfus africanus and Prosymna ambi- gua. The two last named are first records from the Adamaoua highlands, as are Holaspis guentheri, Hylarana albolabhs and Cardioglossa gratiosa. The Adamaoua population of C. gratiosa is described as a new subspecies C. g. peternageli.

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This review summarises the current status of our knowledge of Angolan reptile diversity, and places it into a historical context of understanding and growth. It is compared and contrasted with known diversity in adjacent regions to allow insight into taxonomic status and biogeographic patterns. Over 67% of Angolan reptiles were described by the end of the nineteenth century. Studies stagnated dur- ing the twentieth century but have increased in the last decade. At least 278 reptiles are currently known, but numerous new discoveries have been made during recent surveys, and many novelties await description. Although lizard and snake diversity is currently almost equal, most new discoveries occur in lizards, particularly geckos and lacertids. Poorly known Angolan reptiles and others from adjacent regions that may occur in the country are highlighted. Most endemic Angolan reptiles are lizards and are associated with the escarpment and southwest arid region. Identification of reptile diversity hotspots are resolving but require targeted surveys for their delimitation and to enable protection. These include the Kaokoveld Centre of Endemism, Angolan Escarpment and the Congo forests of the north. The fauna of Angola remains poorly known and under-appreciated, but it is already evident that it forms an important centre of African reptile diversity and endemism.

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A review of the reptiles recorded from southeast Katanga Province in the Democratic Republic of Congo, employing the evolutionary species concept, indicates that there are at least 119 species in the area (7 chelonians, 37 lizards, 4 amphisbaenians, 69 snakes and 2 crocodilians), 15 of which are endemic (12.6 %). Analysis of zoogeographical affinities shows that this reptile fauna is derived from all directions, with forest forms entering from the north accounting for 14.4 % and savanna forms entering from the east contributing 22 %.

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The tongue shape and its epidermal structure was examined in a stock of palearctic and paleotropical lizards from Europe, Africa, the Middle East and south eastern Asia. The results of this preliminary report clearly point out the systematic importance of this morphological feature in providing valuable generic and specific characters. The fundamental pattern described for the genera Podarcis, Lacerta sensu stricto and Gallotia, e.g., is very distinctive despite several features in common, likely due to ancient phyletic relationships. A number of similar morphological trends stress the reciprocal affinities between Lacerta (Archaeolacerta) and the widely spread genus Podarcis which is still undergoing speciation. Another case is the minor but significant affinities linking the genera Lacerta sensu stricto and Gallotia, the latter also undergoing more complicated speciation due to its insular isolation. The interspecific differences in the taxa belonging to the so-called `species groups` such as Podarcis, are scanty or insignificant. Instead there are striking differences in the generic patterns of the tongue morphology in Afro-Asian lacertid lizards. However, a similar pattern was found in the African genera Adolfus and Holaspis or Centromastix (= Gastropholis according to Arnold, 1989) and Ichnotropis.

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A large number of reptiles from the Central African Republic (CAR) were collected during recent surveys conducted over six years (October 1990 to June 1996) and deposited at the Paris Natural History Museum (MNHN). This large collection of 4873 specimens comprises 86 terrapins and tortois- es, five crocodiles, 1814 lizards, 38 amphisbaenids and 2930 snakes, totalling 183 species from 78 local- ities within the CAR. A total of 62 taxa were recorded for the first time in the CAR, the occurrence of numerous others was confirmed, and the known distribution of several taxa is greatly extended. Based on this material and an additional six species known to occur in, or immediately adjacent to, the coun- try from other sources, we present a biogeographical analysis of the 189 species of reptiles in the CAR.

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We carried out a survey of reptiles and amphibians within Afromontane forest and woodland slopes of three inselbergs in northern Mozambique (Mount Mabu, Mount Namuli, and Mount Ribáuè). A total of 56 species (22 amphibians and 34 reptiles) were recorded during the current survey. Our findings substantially increase the number of herpetofaunal species recorded from these mountains (Mount Ribáuè 59%, Mount Mabu 37%, and Mount Nam-uli 11% of the total species), including one new country record and several putative new species. An updated checklist of the herpetofauna of these mountains is presented.

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A biomechanically parsimonious hypothesis for the evolution of flap- ping flight in terrestrial vertebrates suggests progression within an arboreal context from jumping to directed aerial descent, gliding with control via appendicular motions, and ultimately to powered flight. The more than 30 phylogenetically independent lineages of arboreal vertebrate gliders lend strong indirect support to the eco- logical feasibility of such a trajectory. Insect flight evolution likely followed a similar sequence, but is unresolved paleontologically. Re- cently described falling behaviors in arboreal ants provide the first ev- idence demonstrating the biomechanical capacity for directed aerial descent in the complete absence of wings. Intentional control of body trajectories as animals fall from heights (and usually from veg- etation) likely characterizes many more taxa than is currently recog- nized. Understanding the sensory and biomechanical mechanisms used by extant gliding animals to control and orient their descent is central to deciphering pathways involved in flight evolution.

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Climatic conditions changing over time and space shape the evolution of organisms at multiple levels, including temperate lizards in the family Lacertidae. Here we reconstruct a dated phylogenetic tree of 262 lacertid species based on a supermatrix relying on novel phylogenomic datasets and fossil calibrations. Diversification of lacertids was accompanied by an increasing disparity among occupied bioclimatic niches, especially in the last 10 Ma, during a period of progressive global cooling. Temperate species also underwent a genome- wide slowdown in molecular substitution rates compared to tropical and desert-adapted lacertids. Evaporative water loss and preferred temperature are correlated with bioclimatic parameters, indicating physiological adaptations to climate. Tropical, but also some popu- lations of cool-adapted species experience maximum temperatures close to their preferred temperatures. We hypothesize these species-specific physiological preferences may con- stitute a handicap to prevail under rapid global warming, and contribute to explaining local lizard extinctions in cool and humid climates.

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Currently, four species of the lacertid lizard genus Adolfus are known from Central and East Africa. We sequenced up to 2825 bp of two mitochondrial [16S and cytochrome b (cyt b)] and two nuclear [(c-mos (oocyte maturation factor) and RAG1 (recombination activating gene 1)] genes from 41 samples of Adolfus (representing every species), two species each of Gastropholis and Holaspis, and in separate analyses combined these data with GenBank sequences of all other Eremiadini genera and four Lacertini outgroups. Data from DNA sequences were analysed with maximum parsimony (PAUP), maximum-likelihood (RAxML) and Bayesian inference (MrBayes) criteria. Results demonstrated that Adolfus is not monophyletic: Adolfus africanus (type species), Adolfus alleni, and Adolfus jacksoni are sister taxa, whereas Adolfus vauereselli and a new species from the Itombwe Plateau of Democratic Republic of the Congo are in a separate lineage. Holaspis and Gastropholis were recovered in separate clades. Based on these molecular data, relatively substantial sequence divergence, and multiple morphological differences, we describe a new genus of lacertid for the lineage including A. vauereselli and the new Itombwe species. The recognition of this new, endemic genus underscores the conservation importance of the Albertine Rift, especially the Itombwe Plateau, a unique region that is severely threatened by unchecked deforestation, mining, and poaching.

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The evolutionary diversification of many terrestrial vertebrate groups is strongly linked to climatic events in the Cenozoic, the period from 65 Million years ago to today when modern animals first appeared. I investigated the effects of Cenozoic climate change on the taxonomic and morphological diversification of the Old World lizard family Lacertidae, with particular emphasis on the African radiation. African lacertids exhibit an unusual pattern of diversification, in which their highest species richness occurs in deserts north and south of the equator, despite being spread throughout the continent. This disparity is particularly surprising given that desert lacertids are thought to be evolutionarily younger than their mesic-dwelling relatives, suggesting increased diversification rates in arid habitats. To identify the evolutionary factors underlying this pattern, I use a combination of phylogenetic, morphological and ecological techniques. In Chapter 1, I apply Bayesian methods and fossil-based calibrations to molecular sequence data to construct a time-calibrated phylogeny for Lacertidae. I estimate that the family arose in the early Cenozoic, with the majority of their African radiation occurring in the Eocene and Oligocene. In Chapter 2, I describe changes in lacertid body shape across biomes and substrates, and find widespread morphological convergence in similar habitat types. I suggest that in addition to foraging demands, fluctuating and extreme climatic conditions, largely driven by precipitation and temperature, contribute to morphological convergence across independent arid-dwelling clades. Finally, I test if ancestral transitions in ecology, morphology, and rates of diversification temporally coincide with paleoclimatic events in the Cenozoic. I use High Resolution X-ray Computed Tomography to characterize changes in the skull related to life in arid habitats, and apply maximum likelihood methods to test if the origins of those traits temporally coincide with significant shifts in habitat, diversification rates and climatic changes. My results show that African lacertids experienced three major peaks in diversification, accompanied by the evolution of suites of arid-adapted morphological traits. These changes coincide with climatic shifts in Africa, including the transition from closed forests to open grasslands and savanna in the late Oligocene, prior to the peak temperatures of the mid-Miocene Climatic Optimum, and following the formation of the Benguela current leading to hyper-aridity in southern Africa. I conclude that deserts are important centers for reptile evolution, but that expected changes in climate due to global warming may outpace the ability of arid-dwelling species to adapt and persist in the future.

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While global variation in taxonomic diversity is strongly linked to latitude, the extent to which morphological disparity follows geographical gradients is less well known. We estimated patterns of lineage diversification, morphological disparity and rates of phenotypic evolution in the Old World lizard family Lacertidae, which displays a nearly inverse latitudinal diversity gradient with decreasing species richness towards the tropics. We found that lacertids exhibit relatively constant rates of lineage accumulation over time, although the majority of morphological variation appears to have originated during recent divergence events, resulting in increased partitioning of disparity within subclades. Among subclades, tropical arboreal taxa exhibited the fastest rates of shape change while temperate European taxa were the slowest, resulting in an inverse relationship between latitudinal diversity and rates of phenotypic evolution. This pattern demonstrates a compelling counterexample to the ecological opportunity theory of diversification, suggesting an uncoupling of the processes generating species diversity and morphological differentiation across spatial scales.

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The lizard fauna of Togo, a country situated within a natural gap in the rainforest zone of West Africa, is reviewed and updated. In this article, we summarize all available data on the distribution, ecology, and conservation status of the 43 lizard species of Togo. Species richness is uneven between vegetation zones. The submontane forest (ecological zone IV), despite being the smallest, houses the greatest number of species (n = 27), followed by dry forest (ecological zone II, n = 21). Currently none of the Togolese lizard species appears to be immediately threatened. However, several species are subjected to exploitation for the international pet trade and in-country use (bush-meat, fetish market), and could become threatened in the next decades. The intensity of this trade should be carefully monitored in the years to come.

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the Lacertidae is one of the most diverse and widespread lizard families throughout Eurasia and Africa. Several studies so far have attempted to unravel the phylogeny of Lacertidae using morphological and mole- cular data. However, the intra-family relationships remain unclear. in an effort to explore the phylogenetic relationships within the family Lacertidae, a concatenated dataset of 5727 bp from six genes (two nuclear and four mitochondrial) and 40 genera was assembled based on GenBank database. Phylogenetic inference analy- ses were conducted using Maximum Parsimony (MP), Bayesian inference (Bi) and Maximum Likelihood (ML), revealing that even a combined dataset of both mitochondrial and nuclear genes is not able to resolve the phylogenetic relationships of the Lacertidae family under the tribe level.

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The dangers of helminth infestations for lizards, particularly infestations with nematodes und cestodes, are reported. Infection routes, diagnoses, und treatments are described.

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Minute description of a copulation in Holaspis guentheri laevis. The male first seizes the female in the neck, then copulates with flank bite. The copulation lasts about fife and a half minutes.

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Habitat and appearance of Holaspis guentheri laevis is described. The lizards are kept in a tropical rainforest-terrarium, without important climatic oscillations. Normally all 6 - 8 weeks a c1utch of two eggs is produced, except for a probable pause from October until December. Incubation lasts from 3 to 4 months depending on temperatures. With temperatures over + 32°C the hatched offspring was not viable. Keeping of the juveniles takes place without problems under the same conditions as of the adult ones.

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Two types of vivaria are described for Holaspis guentheri laevis, one an approximation of the natural habitat and the other a more spartan design. In both the lizards do well, though we prefer the former design. Courtship lasts 5 - 8 minutes and involves a flankbite and the male clasping the female with his hind legs. For oviposition the lizards must be provided with a humid substrate on which pieces of bark are deposited, preferably in a partly closed container, the substrate if possible being around 30°C. Oviposition of the clutch of two occurs at night. At oviposition eggs measure 6.8x12.0±0.8 mm and weigh 0.33 g. These eggs develop to 9.8x18.8 mm and 1.08 g. At 29°C incubation takes 55-57 days. Juveniles measure (HB+T) 22+33 mm and weigh 0.24 g, and resemble their parents, though less intensely coloured. In contrast to the adults` ventral colour the juveniles are ventrally pitch-black. At a head-body length of approx. 27 mm, the change into adult coloration begins, and is completed when the animal reaches 35 mm in length. Sexual maturity is reached after 1.5-2 years. The proximal fusion of the third and fourth finger in Holaspis is hypothesised to dampen the impact after gliding flights.

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Biotic surveys and a comprehensive literature review were undertaken to improve our knowledge of the biodiversity of Bioko and mainland Equatorial Guinea. Bird and mammal surveys were conducted on the mainland, and herpetological and arthropod surveys on Bioko, providing new information on species distributions and abundance. On the mainland, five areas within the proposed preserve system for Equatorial Guinea; Reserva Natural de Rio Campo, Parque Nacional de Los Altos de Nsork, Parque Nacional de Monte Alen (including Montes Mitra), and Reserva Natural del Estuario del Muni, were examined. On Bioko, the two proposed reserve areas, Parque Nacional de Pico Basilé Reserva Científica de la Caldera de Luba, as well as some lowland areas near Luba were examined. Additionally, genetic data were gathered for birds, and combined with previous data from Cameroon, to assess patterns of genetic differentiation within and across mountains in Cameroon and Bioko. We recorded only one species of bird (Malimbus scutatus) that had not been previously reported for mainland Equatorial Guinea, and no new mammals. However, valuable new information on bird and mammal distributions within Rio Muni are presented. In addition, several species and one genus of amphibians were recorded on Bioko for the first time. Approximately a third of the arthropods, including 372 species of spiders were previously unrecorded, and many are unidentifiable from the literature and may be new species. At least three endemic species of Carabid beetles were also discovered. Conservation implications are discussed in each chapter, and in a separate section (Part V) devoted to conservation recommendations. Conservation actions we recommend include: 1) Maximize protection of regions with high numbers of endemic species (Mountains/Bioko) 2) Preserve elevational gradients whenever possible 3) Create a network of preserves representing different habitat types and climatic zones, as proposed by C.U.R.E.F. 4) Increase conservation education and develop sustainable alternatives to hunting and logging. Thirteen areas have been proposed for conservation by Proyecto Conservacion Utilizacion Racional de los Ecosystemas Forestales des Guinea Equatorial (C.U.R.E.F.). These include two on Bioko, Parque Nacional de Pico Basilé and Reserva Científica de la Caldera de Luba; Nine on the mainland, Parque Nacional de Monte Alen (including Montes Mitra), Reserva Natural del Estuario del Muni, Parque Nacional de Los Altos de Nsork, Reserva Natural de Rio Campo, Reserva Natural de Monte Timeline, Monumento Natural de Piedra Bere, Monumento Natural de Piedra Nzas, Reserva Natural de Punta Llende, Reserva Científica de Playa Nendyi; one comprised of offshore islands, Reserva Natural de Corisco y Elobeyes; and Reserva Natural de Annobon, a small oceanic island. Pico Basilé and Reserva Científica de la Caldera de Luba cover a range of habitats including lowland rainforest, montane and mossy forest, forest, high elevation shrub formation, and subalpine meadows. The island is regionally important because of its genetic uniquenes and high levels of endemism. The island`s one endemic bird, Speirops brunneus, is found only on Pico Basilé, and three species of flightless Carabid beetles discovered there are likely to be endemic. The area is threatened by hunting and selective logging. Reserva Científica de la Caldera de Luba would preserve a rainforest gradient from sea level to 2260m, rivaled only by that found on Mt. Cameroon, which is threatened byconsiderablepopulationpressure. CalderadeLubaishometosevenprimatespecies, four of which are endemic subspecies, and four of which are listed as endangered by IUCN. Primate densities in this area are among the highest recorded anywhere in Africa. However, more recent surveys indicate significant declines in primate populations due to hunting. On the mainland, a number of conservation areas are proposed that would protect a variety of habitats. Parque Nacional de Monte Alen (including Montes Mitra), would, in conjunction with Reserva Natural del Estuario del Muni preserve a potentially important forested elevational gradient for species that undergo seasonal migrations or nomadic movements. The area harbors fifteen species of primates, including several which are vulnerable or endangered. Monte Alen proper is the only area in Equatorial Guinea which has formal protection (there is no hunting or gathering allowed in the park), and is the most well studied area on the mainland. Montes Mitra is a proposed extension of Monte Alen, but logging concessions have been granted within the proposed conservation area, which, together with the bushmeat industry, represent a primary threat to the preservation of an intact elevational gradient. Reserva Natural de Rio Campo will likely be one of the more difficult areas to protect, in that it is bisected by roads, and elephant and buffalo populations have reportedly already suffered from government intervention to protect crops of the local inhabitants. Nonetheless, there are some sound reasons for pursuing some level of conservation here, and the possibility of connecting this area with Cameroon’s Rio Campo Reserve, adds to its conservation value. Parque Nacional de Los Altos de Nsork has only a sparse human population around its perimeter, and has poor access to markets. Nsork is the only area (among Nsork, Rio Campo, and Montes Mitra) where we encountered sign of all three of the large primates, Gorilla, Mandrill and Chimpanzee, and the lack of access to markets may, in part, account for this. Reserva Natural del Estuario del Muni contains the largest, best preserved expanse of mangroves in the country. The area is sparsely populated and has important fisheries. The area is rich in aquatic avifauna and contains prime habitat for the manatee. Reserva Natural de Monte Temelon, Monumento Natural de Piedra Bere, and Monumento Natural de Piedra Nzas are characterized by the presence of inselbergs surrounded by well-preserved forest. These spectacular rocky formations may host endemic arthropods and herpetofauna due to their high degree of isolation, and constitute a potential ecotourist destination. Reserva Natural de Punta Llende is part of the coastal savanna/rainforest mosaic. The savanna areas include birds species found nowhere else in the country and further surveys and research are needed. ReservaCientíficadePlayaNendyiincludesisolatedturtlenestingbeacheswith associated marine habitat. Additionally, two other offshore areas, Reserva Natural de Corisco y Elobeyes and Annobon are proposed for protection. Reserva Natural de Corisco y Elobeyes includes several offshore islands with important marine bird colonies, and associated marine habitat providing feeding grounds for marine turtles. Reserva Natural de Annobon, an oceanic with its associated marine habitat, is rich in animal and plant endemics, and coral reefs.

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Our recent surveys of the herpetological diversity of the West African Togo Hills documented a total of 65 reptile and amphibian species, making Kyabobo National Park one of the most diverse sites sur- veyed in Ghana. We provide accounts for all species recorded along with photographs to aid in identification. We recorded 26 amphibians, including six new records for Kyabobo N. P., one of which is a record for the Togo Hills. Our collection of reptile species (22 lizards, 16 snakes, and one crocodile) also provides new records and range extensions for Kyabobo N. P., such as the first observation of the dwarf crocodile, Osteolaemus tetraspis. Amphibian species still lacking from our surveys in the Togo Hills include several species that are adapted to fast running water or large closed forests, like the Togo toad, Bufo togoensis and the slippery frog, Conraua derooi. Appropriate habitat for such species still remains in Kyabobo, highlighting the need for additional survey work. We draw attention to the importance of conserving forest stream habi- tats, which will in turn help ensure the persistence of forest-restricted species. We also highlight those species that may prove most useful for evolutionary studies of West African rain forest biogeography.

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Aim To map and assess the richness patterns of reptiles (and included groups: amphisbaenians, crocodiles, lizards, snakes and turtles) in Africa, quantify the overlap in species richness of reptiles (and included groups) with the other terrestrial vertebrate classes, investigate the environmental correlates underlying these patterns, and evaluate the role of range size on richness patterns. Location Africa. Methods We assembled a data set of distributions of all African reptile species. We tested the spatial congruence of reptile richness with that of amphibians, birds and mammals. We further tested the relative importance of temperature, precipitation, elevation range and net primary productivity for species richness over two spatial scales (ecoregions and 1° grids). We arranged reptile and vertebrate groups into range-size quartiles in order to evaluate the role of range size in producing richness patterns. Results Reptile, amphibian, bird and mammal richness are largely congruent (r = 0.79–0.86) and respond similarly to environmental variables (mainly productivity and precipitation). Ecoregion size accounts for more variation in the richness of reptiles than in that of other groups. Lizard distributions are distinct with several areas of high species richness where other vertebrate groups (including snakes) are species-poor, especially in arid ecoregions. Habitat heterogeneity is the best predictor of narrow-ranging species, but remains relatively important in explaining lizard richness even for species with large range sizes. Main conclusions Reptile richness varies with similar environmental variables as the other vertebrates in Africa, reflecting the disproportionate influence of snakes on reptile richness, a result of their large ranges. Richness gradients of narrow-ranged vertebrates differ from those of widespread taxa, which may demonstrate different centres of endemism for reptile subclades in Africa. Lizard richness varies mostly with habitat heterogeneity independent of range size, which suggests that the difference in response of lizards is due to their ecological characteristics. These results, over two spatial scales and multiple range-size quartiles, allow us to reliably interpret the influence of environmental variables on patterns of reptile richness and congruency.

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This paper presents the composition of the lizard fauna of Maringa-Lopori-Wamba landscape in the western portion of the central Congo basin in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and its weak similarity with the lizard fauna of Gaboon and Ituri faunal areas. It also fills a gap of knowledge in a region where no previous research on Sauria has been undertaken and signals the presence of Leptosiaphos hylophilus and Lygodactylus n. sp. The paper mentions the finding of a subspecies of Gastropholis echinata. These data are important since collected for the first time in a spot where no herpetological research on lizards has previously been undertaken.

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Lizard toe fringes are composed of laterally projecting elongated scales and have arisen independently at least 26 times in seven families of lizards. Four different fringe types are identified: triangular, projectional, conical and rectangular. To determine if variation in fringe morphology can be attributed to environmental differences, each independent evolution of a fringe type is identified; correlation of substrate types with evolutionarily independent fringe morphologies are thrn studied. Variation in fringe morphology shows a strong association with substrate type: triangular, projectional and conical fringes with windblown sand; and rectangular fringes with watcr. Some aspects of fringe morphology may result from differences in functional requirements, and others may have no adaptive significance. This example of convergent evolution points out difficulties inherent to comparative studies of adaptation and underscores the value of broad comparative surveys which provide an alternative to ad hor adaptive explanations of similarity.

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The Shimba Hills ecosystem along the south coast of Kenya is a key East African biodiversity hotspot. Historically, it is biogeographically assignable to the East African coastal biome. We examined the current Shimba Hills herpetofauna and their zoogeographical affinities to the coastal forests and nearby Eastern Arc Mountains biodiversity hotspots. The key studied sites included the Shimba Hills National Reserve, forest reserves, Kaya forests, and adjacent private land. Data on herpetofaunal richness were obtained from recent field surveys, literature, and specimens held at the National Museums of Kenya, Herpetology Section Collection, Nairobi. The Makadara, Mwele, and Longo- Mwagandi forests within the Shimba Hills National Reserve hosted the highest number of unique and rare species. Generally, the forest reserves and Kaya forests were important refuges for forestassociated species. On private land, Mukurumudzi Dam riparian areas were the best amphibian habitat and were host to three IUCN (Red List) Endangered- EN amphibian species, namely, Boulengerula changamwensis, Hyperolius rubrovermiculatus, and Afrixalus sylvaticus, as well as one snake species Elapsoidea nigra. Using herpetofauna as zoogeographic indicators, the Shimba Hills were determined to be at a crossroads between the coastal forests (13 endemic species) and the Eastern Arc Mountains (seven endemic species). Most of the Eastern Arc Mountains endemic species were from recent records, and thus more are likely to be found in the future. This ‘hybrid’ species richness pattern is attributable to the hilly topography of the Shimba Hills and their proximity to the Indian Ocean. This has contributed to the Shimba Hills being the richest herpetofauna area in Kenya, with a total of 89 and 36 reptile and amphibian species, respectively. Because of its unique zoogeography, the Shimba Hills ecosystem is undoubtedly a key biodiversity area for conservation investment.

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Sexual selection contributes to the diversity of chemical signals in various animal groups. Lizards are good model species to study how sexual selection shapes signal diversity, as they are a chemically oriented taxonomic group with different levels of social interactions. Many lizard species bear epidermal glands secreting a waxy mixture of lipids and proteins, which are used in intraspecific communication. Previous among-species comparative analyses failed to find a relationship between the strength of sexual selection with the composition of the lipid blend in lizards. Here, we extend the investigation to the proteinaceous fraction. By using a phylogenetically informed approach, we correlated the average electrophoretic profiles of the protein from the femoral glands of 36 lacertid lizard species with the level of sexual dimorphism in size and shape, which are proxies for the strength of sexual selection. We found that as sexual size dimorphism advances, five distinct molecular weight regions in the protein profile increased their expression. Using tandem mass spectrometry, we successfully identified one of these five proteins: a carbonic anhydrase—an enzyme catalyzing the reversible hydration of carbon dioxide. Our findings suggest that proteins may be the target of sexual selection, as an active semiochemicals or as a dynamic support to other molecules: sexual selection may act indirectly on semiochemicals (namely lipids) by modifying the matrix (namely proteins).

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The present work constitutes an historical atlas of all known bibliographic records of amphib- ians and reptiles of Angola. It is the first attempt to compile in a single document all the records scattered through hundreds of publications, published from the first half of the nineteenth century to the present day, and provide a critical taxonomic revision of the herpetofauna of the country. An introductory text discusses the Angolan socio-political and physiographic landscape, the history of herpetological research in the country, and the diversity, distribution and endemism of Angolan her- petofauna. It also provides a summary of the conservation concerns surrounding the herpetological fauna. For each taxon noted in the literature we provide a detailed taxonomic account, including data on the original description, its IUCN assessment status, global distribution, georeferenced records for each known occurrence in Angola (accompanied by a point locality map), and taxo- nomic and distributional notes. A synoptic list of all documented Angolan amphibian and reptile species is provided as are lists of taxa previously erroneously assigned to the Angolan fauna. We recognize 117 species of frogs and 278 species of reptiles as occurring in Angola, although many of these represent species complexes or are currently recognized under names of convenience pending taxonomic evaluation. In one instance we provide a replacement name, Trachylepis monardi nom. nov., to deal with an instance of secondary homonymy. The Atlas is intended to be a working reference for both current research and conservation planning, as well as a catalyst for future work.The interest shown by specialists in the study of Angolan specimens dates back more than one hundred years. Since the nineteenth century, books and papers have been published on the topic as the result of these investigations. The first major bibliographic reference about the Angolan herpetofauna, Herpétologie d’Angola et du Congo by José Vicente Barbosa du Bocage, dates from 1895. Many researchers and publications followed, greatly enriching the scientific bibliography on the topic. However, the scattered nature of the published works, as well as the dearth of available specimens from earlier times, has made it difficult for researchers, scholars or curious amateurs to access to this information. Because of these difficulties, and to facilitate the access to available data on the Angolan herpetofauna, the Ministry of Environment, through its National Institute of Biodiversity and Conservation Areas, decided to present, in a single volume, all the available scientific records published so far on the diversity of amphibians and reptiles. Such a task, which has its basis in the National Strategy and Action Plan for Biodiversity and Conservation Areas of Angola, was dependent upon the helpful collaboration of important international partners. The present Atlas will be of inestimable assistance to the study of the Natural History of Ango- la, not only because of its standardized taxonomic and geographical accounts with distribution maps for all of the amphibians and reptiles known in Angola, but also because of its competent approach to the physiography, climate, biomes, historical herpetological research in Angola, conservation, and other topics. The thoughtful way the book is arranged, with straightforward text, clear tables and interesting figures, makes it easy for even laymen to read and understand. At 501 pages long, profusely documented and richly illustrated, this Atlas provides a grand guided tour through the diversity of the Angolan herpetofauna, from the most remote and spectac- ular places of the country. Through mountains and escarpments, plains and valleys, savannas and dense forests, rivers and streams, lakes and lagoons, this work encompasses the entire country, aking us on an enlightening tour of knowledge. The methodical labor and persistence of the specialists who produced the present work, ensure that it not only contributes to scientific history, through its compilation of research already completed, but also suggests future directions for researchers and scholars devoted to the topic. Further, this substantial volume will also inform the national authorities with respect to environ- ment protection and conservation policies. Given all this, one can see that the present work, reflecting the contributions of the men and women who created it, is destined to become a standard reference to the scientific literature of the country, especially in regard to this part of its fauna. The quality of the scientific information poured into the following pages certainly qualifies the authors of this accurate work as leading herpetologists and places them among the important researchers to have served Angola in the course of its scientific history.

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The family Lacertidae encompasses more than 250 species distributed in the Palearctis, Ethiopis and Orientalis. Lacertids have been subjected in the past to several morphological and molecular studies to establish their phylogeny. However, the problems of convergent adaptation in morphology and of excessively variable molecular markers have hampered the establishment of well supported deeper phylogenetic relationships. Particularly the adaptations to xeric environments have often been used to establish a scenario for the origin and radiation of major lineages within lacertids. Here we present a molecular phylogenetic study based on two nuclear marker genes and representatives of 37 lacertid genera and distinct species groups (as in the case of the collective genus Lacerta). Roughly 1600 bp of the nuclear rag1 and c-mos genes were sequenced and analyzed. While the results provide good support to the hitherto suggested main subfamilies of Gallotiinae (Gallotia and Psammodromus), Eremiainae and Lacertinae [Harris, D.J., Arnold, E.N., Thomas, R.H., 1998. Relationships of lacertid lizards (Reptilia: Lacertidae) estimated from mitochondrial DNA sequences and morphology. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 265, 1939–1948], they also suggest unexpected relationships. In particular, the oriental genus Takydromus, previously considered the sister-group to the three subfamilies, is nested within Lacertinae. Moreover, the genera within the Eremiainae are further divided into two groups, roughly corresponding to their respective geographical distributions in the Ethiopian and the Saharo-Eurasian ranges. The results support an independent origin of adaptations to xeric conditions in different subfamilies. The relationships within the subfamily Lacertinae could not be resolved with the markers used. The species groups of the collective genus Lacerta show a bush-like topology in the inferred Bayesian tree, suggesting rapid radiation. The composition of the subfamilies Eremiainae and Lacertinae as well as their phylogeography are discussed.

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Aim Body size is instrumental in influencing animal physiology, morphology, ecology and evolution, as well as extinction risk. I examine several hypotheses regarding the influence of body size on lizard evolution and extinction risk, assessing whether body size influences, or is influenced by, species richness, herbivory, island dwelling and extinction risk. Location World-wide. Methods I used literature data and measurements of museum and live specimens to estimate lizard body size distributions. Results I obtained body size data for 99% of the world`s lizard species. The body size–frequency distribution is highly modal and right skewed and similar distributions characterize most lizard families and lizard assemblages across biogeographical realms. There is a strong negative correlation between mean body size within families and species richness. Herbivorous lizards are larger than omnivorous and carnivorous ones, and aquatic lizards are larger than non-aquatic species. Diurnal activity is associated with small body size. Insular lizards tend towards both extremes of the size spectrum. Extinction risk increases with body size of species for which risk has been assessed. Main conclusions Small size seems to promote fast diversification of disparate body plans. The absence of mammalian predators allows insular lizards to attain larger body sizes by means of release from predation and allows them to evolve into the top predator niche. Island living also promotes a high frequency of herbivory, which is also associated with large size. Aquatic and nocturnal lizards probably evolve large size because of thermal constraints. The association between large size and high extinction risk, however, probably reflects a bias in the species in which risk has been studied.

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We provide an updated, commented list of the reptiles of Gabon, with their occurrence in the country’s protected areas, national parks and reserves. This list is part of a book describing the current status of knowledge of the biodiversity of Gabon, including detailed descriptions and abundant illustrations of its ecosystems and protected areas.

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We report a case of predation on Holaspis guentheri (Lacertidae) by the Senegal Kingfisher (Halcyon senegalensis, Alcedinidae) in Gamba, Ogooue-Maritime Province, southwestern Gabon.

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We provide the first record of Guenther`s Gliding Lizard, Holaspis guentheri (Lacertidae) from Monte Alen National Park and from Centro Sur Province, Equatorial Guinea.

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The book ``Reptiles du Gabon`` provides an extensive description of the reptile fauna currently recorded from Gabon. It includes 122 species, among them 13 chelonians, 3 crocodiles, 32 lacertilians, 3 amphisbaenians and 70 snakes. Photographs, morphological diagnosis, natural history data and a map are given for each species, including a so far undescribed Lygodactylus from Ivindo National Park. Several herpetologists were invited to write chapters: E. Nicholas Arnold (introduction to Lacertidae), Mark Auliya (intro. to Pythonidae), Aaron M. Bauer (intro. to Gekkonidae), Wolfgang Bohme (intro. to Chamaeleonidae and Varanidae), Roger Bour (intro. to Pelomedusidae), Bill Branch (intro. to Cordylidae, Atractaspidinae and Elapidae), Donald G. Broadley (intro. to Amphisbaenidae), Jean-Philippe Chippaux (snake bites and first aid), Patrick David (intro. to Natricidae and Viperidae), Cornelius C. de Haan (intro. to Psammophiinae), Richard Fergusson (intro. to crocodiles), Jacques Fretey (intro. to sea turtles), Dieter Gramentz (intro. to Trionychidae), Danny Meirte (identification key to Colubridae, Lamprophiidae and Natricidae), Zoltan Tamas Nagy and Nicolas Vidal (intro. to systematics of African Caenophidia), Brice P. Noonan (intro. to Boidae), Richard Oslisly (reptiles in Gabon prehistoric rock art), Jarmo Perala (intro. to Testudinidae), Michel Raynal (Mokele-mbembe Brontosaurus-like cryptid), Andreas Schmitz (intro. to Scincidae), Philipp Wagner (intro. to Agamidae) and Van Wallach (intro. to Leptotyphlopidae and Typhlopidae). An extensive bibliography of Gabonese herpetology is given.

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Many animals display complex colour patterns that comprise several adjacent, often contrasting colour patches. Combining patches of complementary colours increases the overall conspicuousness of the complex pattern, enhancing signal detection. Therefore, selection for conspicuousness may act not only on the design of single colour patches, but also on their combination. Contrasting long- and short-wavelength colour patches are located on the ventral and lateral surfaces of many lacertid lizards. As the combination of long- and short-wavelength-based colours generates local chromatic contrast, we hypothesized that selection may favour the co-occurrence of lateral and ventral contrasting patches, resulting in complex colour patterns that maximize the overall conspicuousness of the signal. To test this hypothesis we performed a comparative phylogenetic study using a categorical colour classification based on spectral data and descriptive information on lacertid coloration collected from the literature. Our results demonstrate that conspicuous ventral (long wavelength-based) and lateral (short wavelength-based) colour patches co-occur throughout the lacertid phylogeny more often than expected by chance, especially in the subfamily Lacertini. These results suggest that selection promotes the evolution of the complex pattern rather than the acquisition of a single conspicuous colour patch, possibly due to the increased conspicuousness caused by the combination of colours with contrasting spectral properties.

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The herpetofauna of southern Africa is currently receiving an increased amount of attention. The Zoological Society of Southern Africa held a symposium on herpetology and ichthyology in 1975, the proceedings of which have been published in Zoologica Africana, and no less than 17 papers dealt specifically with research carried out recently on southern African amphibians and reptiles. Our aim in this chapter, therefore, can be no more than to sketch the present state of knowledge and thinking in a rapidly changing field.

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In March and April 2018 we surveyed amphibians and reptiles in two Proposed Protected Areas (PPAs) in Liberia. In the Krahn-Bassa Proposed Protected Area (KBPPA) in eastern Liberia 36 species of amphibians and 13 species of reptiles were recorded. In the Foya Proposed Protected Area (FPPA) in western Liberia 39 species of amphibians and 10 species of reptiles were recorded. The encountered herpetological communities in both sites were typical for West African rainforests. However, some species indicated disturbances, in particular at the edges of the study areas, the surrounding villages and plantations, and old artisanal gold mining sites within forests. Of particular conservation interest was the discovery of a high percentage of typical rainforest specialists with ranges restricted to the western part of the Upper Guinea rainforest biodiversity hotspot. Outstanding discoveries in KBPPA were two new species of puddle frogs, and the first country record for the arboreal, parachuting lizard Holaspis guentheri. Remarkable records in FPPA comprise a new species of stiletto snake, a new puddle frog and records of various frog species typically breeding in undisturbed rainforest streams, such as Odontobatrachus natator and Conraua alleni. Both study areas comprise an important proportion of the remaining rainforests in the Upper Guinea forest zone. The new discoveries indicate that within this biogeographic area, southeastern and western Liberian rainforest may still hold various undiscovered species and species of conservation concern. Further surveys in KBPPA and FPPA and nearby forests should clarify the distribution and conservation status of the new taxa. This study also emphasizes that the western part of the Liberian forests comprise at least partly a herpetofauna which differs from that of the East of the country. The recorded threatened amphibian species are all specialized on relatively undisturbed rainforests and they all have only small geographic ranges. The remaining parts of undisturbed or little disturbed forests thus have high importance for the long-term survival of these species. In conclusion the study areas have a high conservation potential and should be urgently protected from any further forest loss degradation and uncontrolled hunting.

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While the stability of sex chromosomes is widely accepted in viviparous mammals and birds, ectothermic vertebrates are still largely viewed as having frequent turnovers in sex determining systems. Frequent changes in sex determining systems in ectotherms could be problematic for field ecological studies as well as for breeding programs, as molecular sexing across a phylogenetically widespread spectrum of ectothermic vertebrates would not be possible. However, we recently documented that sex determining systems in three important reptile lineages (caenophidian snakes, iguanas, and lacertid lizards) are in fact highly conserved. 2.We applied a new molecular procedure to identify sex within each of these three lineages (encompassing altogether around 4,000 species, i.e. nearly 50% of the recent species of reptiles). This technique uses quantitative PCR (qPCR) to compare copy numbers of genes specific for their respective Z (in caenophidian snakes and lacertids) and X (in iguanas) chromosomes between male and female genomes. The DNA samples required can be collected relatively non-invasively. Unlike molecular sexing based on repetitive elements, this technique can be easily applied to previously unstudied species of these lineages, as the number of copies of protein coding genes linked to the differentiated sex chromosomes is evolutionary highly conserved in each. 3.We suggest that qPCR-based molecular sexing using the comparison of gene copy number is a practical choice for non-model species of caenophidian snakes, iguanas and lacertids. Morever, it should also soon be available for other reptile lineages with differentiated sex chromosomes.

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Sex chromosomes are believed to be stable in endotherms, but young and evolutionary unstable in most ectothermic vertebrates. Within lacertids, the widely radiated lizard group, sex chromosomes have been reported to vary in morphology and heterochroma- tinization, which may suggest turnovers during the evolution of the group. We compared the partial gene content of the Z-specific part of sex chromosomes across major lineages of lacertids and discovered a strong evolutionary stability of sex chromosomes. We can conclude that the common ancestor of lacertids, living around 70million years ago (Mya), already had the same highly differentiated sex chromosomes. Molecular data demonstrating an evolutionary conservation of sex chro- mosomes have also been documented for iguanas and caenophidian snakes. It seems that differences in the evolutionary conservation of sex chromosomes in vertebrates do not reflect the distinction between endotherms and ectotherms, but rather between amniotes and anamniotes, or generally, the differences in the life history of particular lineages.

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Includes bibliographical references and index. Introduction. List of localities. New genus. List of new species and type localities. Preliminary note on the distribution of African lizards. Note on the distribution of African turtles -- Testudinata. Testudinae. Kinixys Bell. Pelomedusidae. Pelusios Wagler. Pelomedusa Wagler -- Loricata (Crocodilia). Crocodylidae. Crocodylus Laurenti. Osteoblepharon, new genus. Ecological notes on Congo crocodiles -- Squamata. Lacertilia. Geckonidae. Gonatodes Fitzinger. Hemidactylus Cuvier. Lygodactylus Gray. Agamidae. Agama Daudin. Varanidae. Varanus Merrem. Lacertidae. Lacerta Linnaeus. Bedriagaia Boulenger. Algiroides Fitzinger. Ichnotropis Peters. Eremias Wiegmann. Holaspis Gray. Gerrhosauridae. Gerrhosaurus Wiegmann. Scincidae. Mabuya Fitzinger. Lygosoma Gray. Ablepharus Fitzinger. Anelytropidae. Feylinia Gray. Chamaeleontidae. Chamaeleon Gronovius. Rhampholeon Günther -- Appendix A: Lists of the turtles, crocodiles, lizards, and chameleons of the rain forest and of the Sudanese subprovince -- Appendix B: Notes on the types of Hallowell`s West African species in the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.

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The African flying lizard Holaspis guentheri (Lacertidae) from the Uluguru Mountains, Tanzania was found infected by an undescribed malarial parasite, Plasmodium holaspi n. sp. Gametocytes were elongate, approximately twice the size of host cell nuclei, and showed prominent, irregular pigment granules. Schizonts were oblong or formed as rosettes, approximated the host cell nucleus in size, and produced 8-18 merozoites. Maturing gametocytes contained large masses or blocks of chromatin which can obscure sexual differentiation by staining reaction, while young gametocytes and asexual stages almost always occupy marginal positions in host cells. These characteristics distinguish P. holaspi from all other saurian Plasmodium species. This is the first malarial parasite described from African lacertid species.

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We report on a collection of reptiles made in southern Benin, mostly in the vicinity of Lama Forest, a relict rain forest surrounded by savannah habitats within the the so-called Dahomey gap. 48 species (3 chelonian, 20 saurian and 25 ophidian species were encountered) are listed with the respective voucher material and commented in respect to taxonomic or ecological information. Five lizard species (Agamasylvanus, Hemidactylusansorgei, H. lamaensisn. sp., Holaspisguentheri, Varanusornatus) and two snake species (Natriciteresvariegata, Amblyodipsasunicolur) are new for the fauna of Benin, the second Hemidactylusspecies being even new to science. Some other species are reported from Benin for only the second time. This commented list of species collected from southern Benin is followed by a general country-wide checklist, which is based on literature data and also some unpublished records from northern Benin, among them the remarkable rediscovery of Agamagracilimembris, 9 decades after its original description from this country.

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The staggering phenotypic variation among organisms and the striking fit between an organism`s morphology and its environment have fascinated naturalists for centuries. Darwin`s publication of `On the origin of species` was the first to offer an explanation for the apparently perfect form-function relationship. During the past century overly enthousiastic evolutionary biologists interpreted any direct link between an organism`s morphology and ecology as evidence for the theory of evolution by natural selection. However, for morphological variation to be considered adaptive it is necessary to explicitly test how this variation translates into the variation in ecologically relevant performance traits, which in turn translates into ecological (and fitness) variation. Nowadays, performance- based ecomorphological approaches are typically used to test the adaptive nature of phenotypic variation in order to provide a better understanding of the selective pressures operating on organisms. Using an ecomorphological approach, lacertid lizards have been used extensively to test whether and how they are adapted to their environment. The majority of these studies have mainly included European species, leaving African species underrepresented. This is suprising from an evolutionary viewpoint. Compared to European lacertids, African lacertid lizard clades are older and more speciose. Also, lacertid lizard communities on the African continent are more complex than the ones in Europe (i.e. comprising 7-8 species versus 2-3 species). In this talk, we will focus on the phenotypic divergence among African clades and the link with the variation in performance and ecology, and explicitly compare these results to results on European lacertids.

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Although the capacity to glide has evolved independently several times within lizards, only one lacertid lizard, Holaspis guentheri, has been observed using this type of locomotion to move from tree to tree. Here, we first test whether H. guentheri can be regarded a true glider/parachuter. We do so by quantifying gliding performance (i.e. velocity, glide distance and duration) and compare it to the performance of a typical gliding gecko, Ptychozoon kuhli, and a non-gliding lacertid, Podarcis muralis. Second, we investigate how H. guentheri glides by quantifying several biomechanical factors (i.e. angle of attack, lift and drag coefficient). Although H. guentheri is as able to parachute as P. kuhli, it uses a different strategy to do so. Whereas the lacertid lizard generates more drag, the gecko generates more lift. In addition, the drag-based parachuting in H. guentheri results in a reduction of the velocity at landing; by using a lift-based strategy P. kuhli is able to cover greater distances.

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Controlled aerial descent has evolved at least 30 times independently in different vertebrate and invertebrate lineages. A whole suite of morphological modifications, such as patagia, lateral skin folds and webbed feet, have been suggested to enhance descending ability. In this study, we compare aerial performance (i.e. vertical and horizontal velocity, horizontal distance covered, duration of descent) and morphology (body mass, body width, inter limb distance, surface area and wing loading) among three species of lizards, representing a range of aerial descenders present within the clade. Our performance measurements show that the lacertid Holaspis guentheri performs intermediately to the specialized gekkonid Ptychozoon kuhli and the rock-dwelling lizard Podarcis muralis. The small relative body mass of H. guentheri results in a low wing loading similar to that of P. kuhli thus enhancing its aerial performance. Whereas the latter generates great lift forces and is able to cover great horizontal distances, H. guentheri’s low wing loading seems to be responsible for a slow descent and low impact forces upon landing. Our results show that very small morphological changes may result in noticeable and ecologically relevant changes in performance.

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The aim of this study was to determine if divergence in habitat use among lacertid lizards is paralleled by morphological differentiation. For 35 lacertid species, we measured body, head and limb dimensions. Habitat use was inferred from the literature: ground-dwelling on open terrain, ground-dwelling in vegetated areas, shrub-climbing, tree-climbing, saxicolous (i.e. rock-climbing). Traditional (i.e. non-phylogenetic) statistical analyses suggest morphological differences among species groups with different habitat use. Ground-dwelling species from open habitats tend to have longer femurs, tibiae and humeri (relative to body length) than other groups. Cursorial (i.e. level-running) species have relatively high heads and trunks compared to climbing species. These differences follow biomechanical predictions and it is tempting to consider tham as adaptations to habitat use. However, phylogenetic analyses of the data fail to establish a clear relationship between habitat use and morphology in the data set considered. There is a weak indication that the differences in head and trunk height have evolved as an adaptation to different habitat use, but the differences in relative limb dimensions among species groups with different habitat use vanish. Either adaptation of limb dimensions to habitat use has not occurred in lacertid lizards, or our methods are unable to demonstrate such an adaptation. We show that uncertainties in the topology of the phylogenetic tree used are unlikely to influence the outcome of our study. We also address the fact that habitat use is often similar in different branches of the phylogenetic tree, and the consequences this may have for the power of our statistical analyses.

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Shape variation in the vestibular system is often linked to microhabitat structure and locomotor performance. Highly circular and orthogonal semicircular canal pairs are linked to higher motion sensitivity. Here, we use 3D geometric morphometrics to investigate shape variation in the vestibular system within lacertid lizards and its relationship to balance control. We found that lacertids living in complex microhabitats possess narrow but longer vestibular systems, an S-shaped anterior canal, a straightened lateral canal and a short common crus. However, lacertids specialized for simple microhabitats (open areas) possess wider but shorter vestibular systems, more circular anterior and lateral canals, and a longer common crus. Contrary to our expectations, species living in simple microhabitats possess more anatomical adaptations that enhance the sensitivity of their vestibular system. This suggests that species inhabiting open areas may benefit from increased sensitivity given that they are potentially more visibile to predators and have lower shelter availability. Finally, the wider shape of the vestibular system of the open area species may be linked to a wider and potentially flattened skull, which may be related to sand-diving or prey hardness.

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This study lists the amphibian and reptile species of Kibale National Park, Uganda, and discusses the natural history and biogeography of this unique herpetofauna. This herpetofaunal inventory was compiled based upon literature records and collections made during 17 mo fieldwork between 1995 and 1997, and includes 28 anuran, 15 lizard, and 32 snake species. Faunal comparisons with seven other tropical African forests show a high degree similarity between the Kibale herpetofauna and those of central and West Africa.

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The amphibians and reptiles of Kibale National Park in western Uganda were inventoried over an 18-mo period in 1995 and 1996-97. A total of 75 species, including 28 amphibians and 47 reptiles, were collected or observed. Comparison with other equatorial African herpetofaunas confirms that the Kibale fauna is most similar to those of southwest Uganda and eastern Congo-Zaire, both hypothesized Pleistocene forest refugia. Comparison with a West Africa fauna also shows a fair degree of overlap, while almost no overlap was observed between Kibale and the forests of coastal East Africa. This confirms that the Kibale herpetofauna is an extension of the Guinea-Congolean forest faunas. Randomly placed 5 x 5 m plots were used to sample the herpetofauna of the forest leaflitter layer in unlogged forest, logged forest, and a neighboring exotic pine plantation. A total of 18 amphibian and reptile species were captured in the litter, a number similar to that observed in mid-elevation tropical forests in Central America and Southeast Asia. Density at Kibale was much lower than most previous studies. Analysis of the feeding ecology of the most abundant litter species showed that most diurnal litter frogs are active foragers of hard-bodied prey such as ants; sit-and-wait predators of larger soft-bodied prey are curiously absent. Plots sampled under fruiting Ficus natalensis trees showed significantly higher prey densities, but litter amphibians and reptiles did not seem to respond to this increase. Of the physical and biotic factors measured in each plot, seasonal changes in soil moisture were most closely correlated with the patterns of herpetofauna abundance observed in the forest. This is consistent with the fact that Kibale receives less rain than any site where the ecology of the litter herpetofauna has been studied, and that most of the species present in Kibale are believed to have evolved in the wetter forests of eastern Congo-Zaire.

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Numerous vertebrates employ one or more autotomous body parts as an anti-predation mechanism. Many lizards possess an autotomous tail that is brightly colored blue, which has been suggested to either serve as a decoy mechanism to divert predator attention to the autotomous body part, as an interspecific signal, or as an aposematic signal to predators that it is distasteful or dangerous. While theoretical studies suggest that a conspicuous autotomous body part that increases the probability of escape while not increasing the rate of detection will be favorable over a completely cryptic form, there is little empirical evidence supporting the adaptive benefit of an autotomous blue tail. We used in situ clay models of a scincid lizard to test the fitness consequences of blue coloration. Lizard models with a dark base color and blue decoy coloration experienced no measurable difference in avian predation relative to an all-dark model, which suggests that blue coloration neither serves as an aposematic signal nor increases the conspicuousness of the lizard model. Despite statistically similar attack rates, avian attacks on models with blue coloration were indeed focused on body sections that were colored blue. Our results suggest that the blue tail in lizards serves as an effective decoy, and that avian predation has possibly played a role in the evolution of the blue tail.

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Lacertidae from page 84.