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Algyroides moreoticus, Lacerta agilis, Lacerta graeca, Lacerta oxycephala, Lacerta trilineata, Lacerta viridis, Podarcis melisellensis fiumana, Podarcis muralis albanica, Podarcis peloponnesiaca, Podarcis sicula campestris, Podarcis taurica ionica, Podarcis taurica taurica.

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Algyroides fitzingeri, Algyroides marchi, Algyroides moreoticus, Algyroides nigropunctatus, Lacerta agilis, Lacerta lepida, Lacerta princeps, Lacerta schreiberi, Lacerta strigata, Lacerta trilineata, Lacerta viridis, Lacerta andreanszkyi, Lacerta armeniaca, Lacerta bedriagae, Lacerta brandtii, Lacerta cappadocica, Lacerta caucasica, Lacerta chlorogaster, Lacerta cyanura, Lacerta danfordi, Lacerta derjugini, Lacerta dugesii, Lacerta fraasii, Lacerta graeca, Lacerta horvathi, Lacerta jayakari, Lacerta laevis, Lacerta monticola, Lacerta mosorensis, Lacerta oxycephala, Lacerta parva, Lacerta perspicillata, Lacerta praticola, Lacerta rudis, Lacerta saxicola, Lacerta vivipara, Gallotia atlantica, Gallotia galloti, Gallotia simonyi, Podarcis erhardii, Podarcis filfolensis, Podarcis hispanica, Podarcis lilfordi, Podarcis melisellensis, Podarcis milensis, Podarcis muralis, Podarcis peloponnesiaca, Podarcis pityusensis, Podarcis sicula, Podarcis taurica, Podarcis tiliguerta, Podarcis wagleriana, Psammodromus algirus, Psammodromus blanci, Psammodromus hispanicus, Psammodromus microdactylus.

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The ability to shed (autotomize) all or part of the tail, usually in response to predator attack, and often to subsequently regenerate it is widespread in lizards and amphisbaenians and also occurs in a few snakes and in the tuatara. Most species possess a sophisticated intravertebral autotomy mechanism which seems to be primitive in the Squamata. This appears to have been independently lost in members of many groups, but some agamids and snakes have regained the ability to shed their tails by a simpler intervertebral means and a -number of agamids have also redeveloped tail regeneration as well. Breakable tails are used to evade capture in two main ways: by enabling reptiles to break away from predators that have grasped them by the tail and by providing a distraction which deflects the attention of the attacker away from the vulnerable head and body. It is argued that loss of caudal autotomy has occurred when the costs of tail shedding outweigh its benefits. Likely costs include the expense of regrowing the tail and the loss of a variety of possible tail functions that may cause partial incapacitation, at least until the tail regenerates. Benefits of autotomy are liable to be low if predation is rare, if the animal is able to protect itself effectively in other ways, if it is too slow to evade further pursuit after the tail is shed, or if the tail is small or unpalatable and consequently not likely to distract a predator. Benefit variation may well be greater than cost variation and therefore more important in initiating the loss of autotomy mechanisms. Many taxa that do not shed the tail appear to conform to the above interpretation, but in some cases, such as the Platynota, Agamidae and Chamaeleonidae, lack of intravertebral autotomy may reflect the history of these groups rather than being a direct result of present ecological pressures. The distribution of intervertebral autotomy in the Agamidae suggests that it may have evolved only in rather special circumstances where tail fragility is advantageous even in the absence of the ability to regenerate. Restriction ot autotomy planes to the tail-base, so that the whole organ is lost, a condition found in a number of relatively slow-moving geckoes, is interpreted as a means of ensuring that enough of the tail is shed to distract a predator from further pursuit. The stimulus necessary to induce autotomy can vary rapidly in individual lizards and at least some of these changes probably maximize the effectiveness of the tail-shedding mechanism. Differences in the readiness with which all or part of the tail is shed exist between species and are likely to reflect the balance of costs and benefits in particular cases. Variations in incidence of broken tails between species and populations may be due to such differences in fragility but many other factors may play a part, including the age structure of samples, incidence of unsuccessful attacks by predators and ability to evade predators after autotomy. There is a clear tendency for climbing lizards, especially those living on rock surfaces, to have higher incidences of broken tails than ground-dwelling species, perhaps because the tail is usually less important in locomotion in the first group. Many lizards possess conspicuously coloured tails and tail movements that seem likely to help distract attention from the head and body. Conspicuous tail colouring is more frequent and often better developed in young animals, which tend to be more vulnerable than adults, and in active species from open habitats where crypsis may not always be very effective. Conspicuous tails usually have contrasting light and dark areas in nocturnal forms but are often a single bright colour in diurnal ones, probably reflecting the visual capacities of their respective predators. The predominance of blue tails in day-active species may be because this colour is striking close to but not very arresting at a distance, so it may not attract predators from far away while still drawing their attention at close quarters.

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The basic anatomy of the lacertid hemipenis (intromittent organ) and methods for its investigation are described. In many members of the Lacertidae, the hemipenis has a structure quite unlike that of other squamate reptiles: the distal lobes of the retracted organ are complexly folded and there is a well-defined supporting structure of dense connective tissue, the armature. This incorporates blood sinuses and has an intramuscular portion embedded in the m. retractor penis magnus and two club-shaped bodies, the clavulae, that support the lobes in the erect organ. Unarmatured hemipenes occur in some lacertids and, like those of other squamates, possess sac-like lobes in the retracted state, but they are singular in having the lobes invested by the m. retractor penis magnus. It is argued that many of these apparently primitive hemipenes are in fact secondary derivatives of the armatured type. There is considerable inter-specific variation in hemipenial structure which is described systematically. In some cases this involves differences in size, asymmetry and simplification, which may arise as physical isolating mechanisms and is useful in distinguishing otherwise very similar species, particularly in the genus Mesalina (p. 1253). Other shared derived hemipenial features provide useful information about relationships between species and higher taxa and a summary of the hypotheses that they support is given (p. 1254).

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Twenty-four species of lacertid lizards were examined at 31 sites in western Yogoslavia, Greece and Iberia. Comparative observations were made on over 4500 individual lizards, noting such features as times of activitiy, hunting methods, diet, micro- and macrohabitat, refuges used and body temperature. These data are used as a basis for assessing resource partition in related sympatric species, for find out whether different systematic groups have characteristic types of niche, and for comparing cumminity structures in the peninsulas of southern Europa. Acanthodactylus erythrurus, Algyroides marchi, Algyroides moreoticus, Algyroides nigropunctatus, Lacerta agilis, Lacerta graeca, Lacerta horvathi, Lacerta lepida, Lacerta monticola, Lacerta oxycephala, Lacerta mosorensis, Lacerta schreiberi, Lacerta trilineata, Lacerta viridis, Lacerta vivipara, Podarcis bocagei, Podarcis erhardii, Podarcis hispanica, Podarcis melisellensis, Podarcis milensis, Podarcis muralis, Podarcis peloponnesiaca, Podarcis sicula, Podarcis taurica, Psammodromus algirus, Psammodromus hispanicus.

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The longevity of several lacertid lizard species in captivity is reported. The conditions of keeping, which have been successful throughout many years, are briefly presented.

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First week of October 2004 a group of nature lovers visited the southern continental part of Hellas (Greece): the Peloponnesos. Nesos means island. According to mythology Pelops, son of Tantalos, was awarded with an island, in his case a pseudo-island. The Island of Pelops or Pelopo-nesos is almost an island: it is THE original peninsula connected to the Balkans via the original Isthmos! From a biogeographical point of view this peninsula is interesting, with plants and animals found elsewhere in Europe, but also with island characteristics and with some endemical forms. Cyclamens, Peloponnesos Colchicum and several other plants were encountered. The author gives a short travelogue. He describes batrachological and herpetological results of the excur- sions made. The situation of chameleons and slowworms on the peninsula receives some extra concern. Also a list of herpspecies found and photographed is added.

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In order to resolve the relationships of Lacerta kulzeri, parts of mitochondrial genes for 12S rRNA and 16S rRNA of samples of the following species were sequenced: Gallotia stehlini (as an outgroup), Lacerta trilineata, L. cappadocica, L. fraasii, L. danfordi, L. rudis, Podarcis peloponnesiaca, as well as representatives of different populations of L. laevis and L. kulzeri. Sequence analysis clearly shows a close relation between L. laevis and L. kulzeri and no close relation of these species to any other representative of the lizards examined. The other species also show themselves to be representatives of very distinct lacertid groups. The resulting sequence differences within L. kulzeri and L. laevis, respectively, are very high in relation to those between the two species, and they are higher than one would expect for species with small areas.

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In the herpetological collection of ZFMK 528 scientific species group names are represented by type materi- al. Of these, 304 names are documented by primary type specimens (onomatophores) while for 224 further names sec- ondary type specimens (typoids) are available, ranging chronologically from 1801 to 2010. The list is a shortened pred- ecessor of a comprehensive type catalogue in progress. It lists name bearing types with their catalogue numbers includ- ing information on further type series members also in other institutions, while secondary types are listed only by pres- ence, both in ZFMK and other collections including holotype repositories. Geographic origin and currently valid names are also provided.

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We here reply to the arguments put forward by ARNOLD (2000) and LANZA & BOSCHERIN (2000) concerning the gender of the genus Podarcis. ARNOLD`S argument that a change of endings ot adjective flectible species names threatens stability is rejected by clearly following the articles of the current edition of the Code (ICZN 1999). We finally conclude that the gender of Podarcis must be masculine for the following reasons: (1) WAGLER (1830) did not determine the gender by combination with any species name nor by statement, (2) the name Podarcis is of common variable gender, (3) the Principle of First Reviser does not apply to determination of gender of names, (4) the Code clearly states that a name of common variable gender is to be treated as masculine.

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The interspecific relationships among female size, clutch size, egg size, and hatchling size were examined for 64 European lacertids. The eggs of all species increased linearly in both linear dimensions and mass during incubation. Across species initial egg mass was positively correlated with juvenile mass, with an allometric relationship exponent of 0.87. Initial egg mass across species increased proportionally with female mass to the power of 0.57. Moreover, an increase in maternal mass was also accompanied by an increase in clutch size. The number of eggs per clutch across species scaled with female mass to the power of 0.39. Removing the effect of female mass resulted in a negative correlation between egg mass and clutch size. Species for which the average egg size was lower than expected on the basis of female mass, tended to have larger relative clutch size. The total egg mass per clutch was about one third of female mass (exponent 0.94).

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Note are given on the herpetofauna of Greece, with special reference to some of the (sub-) species. The observations were made during a spring trip.

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We discuss three aspects of the thermal biology of lacertid lizards. First, we provide an overview of the available data on field body temperatures (Tb), the thermal sensitivity of various performance functions and selected body temperatures in different species of lacertid lizards. We also briefly summarise information on the mechanisms of thermoregulation. Second, we discuss recent developments to estimate the »precision« of thermoregulation, and the contribution of distinct behavioural mechanisms. Finally, we revise available evidence for the existence of evolutionary adjustments of thermal characteristics in lacertid lizards. Existing studies have mainly dealt with within- and among-species differences in thermoregulatory behaviour (selected temperatures) and thermal physiology of adults (optimal temperatures, heating rates). Available data provide only limited evidence for clear-cut evolutionary shifts in thermal physiology characteristics along climatic gradients.

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The Greek lizard fauna consists of 26 species from which 5 are monotypic and the other ones are represented by a total of 86 subspecies. Five species and 61 subspecies are endemic of Greece. A checklist including the geographical distribution of each taxon in the Greek region is presented.

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The present study examines the genetic variability and the taxonomic relationships among five lacertid species, i.e. Podarcis taurica, P. milensis, P. peloponnesiaca, Lacerta graeca and Algyroides moreoti- cus, representing the three main genera of this family in Europe. The last four of the above species are endemic to Greece and three of them live sympatrically in Peloponnisos. These relationships were studied by allozyme analysis. Of the loci analyzed, the Mpi-1 locus was found to be a convenient molecular marker for discrimi- nation of the genera Podarcis(allele a), Lacerta(allele b) and Algyroides(allele c). The values of Nei’s genetic distances between the examined species ranged from 0.025 to 0.484. According to the UPGMA-dendrogram plotted using the Nei’s genetic distances, two species groups are formed indicating that the genera Lacertaand Algyroidesshow a stronger relationship to one another than either does to Podarcis. These results are in agree- ment with DNAsequence data but are not in accordance with previous electrophoretic and immunological studies, which suggest that Lacertais more closely related to Podarcis than to Algyroides. The studied Podarcistaxa were found to be close relatives (Nei’s distances <0.18), especially P. taurica and P. milensis. These values are lower than those usually given in the literature for the distinction of lacertid species.

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1. The herpetofauna of the Argo-Saronic islands includes two amphibians, one tortoise, six lizards, and six snakes. There are no indigenous species, 2. Owing to the lack of previous reports for the area most species are recorded for the first time. However, of particular interest are Chalcides o. ocellatus, Coluber najadum dahlii and Malpolon monspessulanus insignitus, as these are basically mainland forms and absent from the Cycladcs, although the first two are found on Kea, close to the Attic peninsula . The record for Eryx jaculus turcicus is valuable as knowledge of its range in Greece is very incomplete.

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Background Lizards of the genus Podarcis are widespread in the Mediterranean region, including islands and island archipelagos. These small-bodied lizards have a predominantly protective green-brown colouration. However, some populations display unusual patterns, in which the colouration is predominantly blue or uniformly black. This study explores the factors that influence this chromatic variation, whether environmental (climate and island conditions) or evolutionary (phylogenetic trait conservatism). The colouration of 1400 individuals (27 species) was analysed in the CIELAB colour space. Results Pagel’s λ indicated that colouration is weakly conserved within phylogenetic lineages. Although the island surface plays a key role in the chromatic variability of these lacertids, geographic isolation and climate hold less influence. The colouration of some small island populations tends to be uniform and dark, possibly due to intense intraspecific competition and lower predatory pressure. Conclusions This study highlights the importance of island populations in understanding the processes that favour the emergence of extreme phenotypes in small ectothermic vertebrates.

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The analysis of biogeographical structure and patterns of endemism are central topics of biogeography, but require exhaustive distribution data. A lack of accurate broad-scale information on the distribution of reptiles has so far limited the analyses of biogeographical structure. Here we analysed the distribution of reptiles within the broad-sense Western Palearctic to assess biogeographical regionalization using phylogenetic and non-phylogenetic approaches, identified areas of endemism and evaluated the environmental factors pro- moting community uniqueness and endemism. We gathered distributional records from the literature and from the field, mapping the distribution of all the Western Palearctic reptiles on a 1-degree resolution grid. bsim dissimilarity and hierarchical clustering was used to identify bioregions, analysing data both at the species and at the genus level, and considering phylogenetic dissimilarity. Consensus areas of endemism were identified on the basis of the optimality criterion. We then assessed whether biogeographical structure is related to present-day climate, insularity, orography and velocity of climate change during the Late Qua- ternary. The genus-level analysis identified five main biogeographical regions within the Western Palearctic, in partial agreement with previous proposals, while the species-level analysis identified more bioregions, largely by dividing the ones identified by genera. Phylogenetic bioregions were generally consistent with the non- phylogenetic ones. The strongest community uniqueness was observed in subtropical warm climates with seasonal precipitation and low productivity. We found nine consensus areas of endemism, mostly in regions with limited velocity of Quaternary climate change and warm subtropical climates. The biogeographical structure of Western Palearctic reptiles is comparable to what has been observed in other vertebrates, with a clear distinction between the Saharo-Arabian-Sindian and Euro-Mediterranean herpetofaunas. Unlike other vertebrates, in reptiles the highest uniqueness and endemism is observed in dry climates, but the velocity of climate change during the Quaternary remains a major driver of endemism across all the vertebrates.

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In diesem Naturführer werden auf über 100 Farbfotos alle mitteleuroipäischen Arten und darüber hinaus auch süd- und osteuropäische vorgestellt: Frösche, Kröten, Molche und Salamander, Schildkröten, Echsen und Schlangen. Fachkundige Texte informirern über Kennzeichen, Vorkommrn, Verhalten, Fortpflanzung, Ernährung und Besonderheiten. Der bewährte Kosmos-Farbcode teilt die Amphibien und Reptilien nach ihrer Verwandtschaft in 5 Gruppen ein und erleichtert so die Bestimmung. Die praktischen Klappen bieten interessante Zusatzinformationen über Froschlurchentwicklung, Laichformen und anatomischen Besonderheiten bei Reptilien.

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In recent years there has been an exponential increase in the amount of published DNA sequences, as it has become one of the most popular sources of data for reconstructing phylogenies. A number of studies have attempted to resolve the relationships of groups of lacertids using mitochondrial DNA sequence data, in particular Podarcis and Gallotia (e.g. THORPE et al., 1994; 1996; GONZALEZ et al., 1996; FU et al., 1997; HARRIS, 1997; HARRIS et al., 1998a; 1999; CASTILLA et al., 1999a,b). Reassessment of these data suggest some alternative phylogenies to those previously published, and also highlight possible problems. Two studies have attempted to unravel the phylogeny of the whole family using mitochondrial DNA sequences (FU, 1998; HARRIS et al., 1998b). By combining these essentially congruent data sets, and reanalysing levels of support for the phylogenies produced, a more complete estimate of relationships across the family is produced. This is then compared to alternative sources of evidence, primarily morphological (ARNOLD, 1989), biochemical (MAYER & BENYR, 1994) and karyological (OLMO et al., 1993). Reasons for discrepencies are discussed, as are the relative advantages and disadvantages of the different sources of phylogenetic inference.

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Tail autotomy is one of the main antipredator strategies in lizards. The mechanical pressure exerted by the predator induces an immediate break of the tail. Lizard escapes while the autotomized part thrashes vigorously distracting the predator. Caudal regeneration occurs rapidly in most lizard families and compensate for the disadvantages that tail loss comes with. Among the most important problems is the impaired locomotion. Tail serves as an auxiliary movement instrument and thus caudal shedding alters numerous locomotive features such as balance, speed, climbing ability etc. The quicker lizards will regenerate their tail, the faster their motion abilities will be restored. The duration of tail regeneration varies among lizard families and it seems to depend on phylogeny. In this study we aimed to clarify the impact of life style on caudal regeneration. We predicted that lizards that have a more intense movement pattern (e.g. run more and faster) would regenerate quicker their lost tail. In order to minimize the phylogenetic effect, we worked with three closely related species of the genus Podarcis that have different life styles, affecting the movement pattern: P. tauricus leaves in open areas and is a cursorial species, P. peloponnesiacus prefers low rocks next to flat terrains, running and climbing evenly good and P. muralis is found on rocks and walls and is an excellent climber. To simulate predation, we grasped with a pair of callipers the tail at a distance of 30 mm from the cloaca. Lizards were previously placed in a terrarium covered with rough cork mat, allowing them to maintain good traction. If autotomy occurred, lizards were housed in individual terraria at 30 C and were fed on mealworms (Tenebrio molitor). Tail length was recorded weekly to the nearest second decimal, using a ruler. Measurements began the first week after autotomy and were taken for 23 weeks. The weight and the length of each autotomized tail were measured. Tail regeneration was faster in the case of P. tauricus. P. peloponnesiacus grew its caudal tissues in a slower but yet comparable way whereas P. muralis showed the slowest regeneration rate and did not acquire the full length of the original tail. We believe that the underlying reason for these results is the different use of the tail in each species. P. tauricus is a swift runner and uses its tail as a counterbalance. The other two species are more climbing-oriented and tail is less important. It seems that according to their particular life-style, lizards regenerate their tails in a different rate.

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The Peloponnese wall lizard, Podarcis peloponnesiacus, is endemic to the Peloponnese. Although the phylogeny and species diversity of the Balkan species of Podarcis have been extensively studied, the intraspecific relationships of P. peloponnesiacus are not yet well defined. The aim of this study was to investigate the intraspecific diversity in this species and clarify its taxonomic status by analyzing eight gene fragments (two mitochondrial and six nuclear) and several morphological traits, typically used for systematic inferences within the genus Podarcis. Together with ecological niche modeling, we provided an integrative evaluation of the differentiation between lineages. The combination of several phylogenetic, species delimitation, and chronophylogenetic analyses revealed the existence of two highly supported and divergent clades with a distinct geographical and parapatric distribution and high niche overlap. The differentiation of the two clades dates back to the Pleistocene and is probably correlated with the paleogeography of the Peloponnese. These clades also differed in several phenotypic traits, which, however, exhibit extensive overlap and are not fully diagnostic. The combination of the above results allowed us to identify the two revealed clades as distinct species.

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The morphology of the adrenal gland and relationships between noradrenalin (NA) and adrenalin (A) cells were studied in selected species of the genus Podarcis. As in other previously-studied genera, the morphology of the adrenal gland is not homogeneous, and the species examined can be divided into two groups according to the relationship between chromaffin and steroidogenic tissue. Podarcis taurica and P. hispanica, in which the two tissues are strongly separated, belong to one group. P. wagleriana, P. muralis, P. sicula, P. peloponnesiacus and P. melisellensis belong to a second group in which dorsal chromaffin ribbons send digitations between the steroidogenic cords. The NA/A cell ratio is higher in species of the first group than in those of the second.

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Albumins from several species assigned to Lacerta s. 1. and Gallotia were investigated by means of the Micro-Complement fixation technique. The phylogenetic trees evaluated according to Fitch & Margoliash (1967) and Beverley & Wilson (1982) led us to infer a division, which is in accordance with protein electrophoretic results (Mayer & Tiedemann, 1982) as well as with the subgeneric division used before the studies of Böhme (1971) and Arnold (1973).

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Recently, several works have focused on the lacertid lizards of the genus Podarcis, revealing cases of hidden diversity and paraphyly, and offering evidence that suggests the revision of the extant taxonomical arrangements within the genus. Hidden diversity and paraphyly have been shown to exist in the relationships betweentheBalkan species P. peloponnesiacaandP. erhardii as well. Herewecouple a molecular (mtDNA) dataset with a corresponding morphological one, consisting of morphometric and pholidotic characters, to check for concordance between the two. Phylogenetic analyses reinforced previous suggestions for paraphyly of P. erhardii with respect to P. peloponnesiaca.We found the variation of certain pholidotic characters concordant with the relationships inferred from partial mtDNA sequences, whereas morphometric characters were not. The latter is possibly due to greater influence of morphometric characters by environmental factors. To avoid the observed paraphyly we proceed with the description of the populations from Crete and the islet of Pori, until now designated as P. erhardii, as separate taxa at the species level.

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Variation in the reproductive traits of Greek populations of Podarcis erhardii, P. peloponnesiaca, and P. taurica living in similar habitats along the same latitude was examined. Female body size, clutch size, and egg volume were determined. In all three species, clutch size was positively correlated with maternal body size. P. erhardii appears to modulate its reproductive effort by means of variation in both egg size and number. On the other hand, egg size in P. peloponnesiaca and P. taurica has probably been optimized, and an increase in reproductive effort would result in the production of a larger number of eggs.

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The stomach contents of 108 specimens of Podarcis peloponnesiaca (BlBRON & BORY, 1833) were examined and the results of the analysis are discussed together with prey availability data. The animals were sampled during the spring months March to May when the activity of the lizards and their prey is at its peak. According to the results of the present study, P. peloponnesiaca feeds mainly on arthropods. Imaginai Cole- optera, Diptera, insect larvae, and spiders were the most frequently encountered prey in the lizard`s environment. The same taxa were found to be numerically predominant in the stomachs of P. peloponnesiaca.

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All seven lacertid species recorded from the Peloponnese can be found in a very small area in the Arkadian highlands on the Peloponnese peninsula. Up to now only one example for such unique diversity in such a small area has been described in the Mediterranean region. This density requires the occupation of different restricted ecological and ethological niches for all seven species and therefore the habitats should be diverse. This niche segregation as well as the ecological demands and the ethological differences between the species are discussed in relation to this habitat diversity.

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Mapping the herpetofauna of the basin of Feneos 7 species of amphibians and 21 species of reptiles were found to occur. Localities are recorded on maps for all species; some peculiarities are discussed.

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10 species (peloponnesiaca, muralis, melisellensis, graeca, oxycephala, horvathi, bedriagae, vivipara, viridis, agilis) of the genus Lacerta were examined by employing protein electrophoretic data for 16 genloci. Gene frequencies are given and genetic distances calculated according to NEI (1971, 1972). These and former attempts to subdivide the genus Lacerta are discussed. The electrophoretic results provide the possibility of a classification of the examined species into groups at the subgenus level corresponding to those valid before BÖHME (1971) and ARNOLD (1973): genus Lacerta subgenus Lacerta s. str. subgenus Podarcis subgenus Archaeolacerta subgenus Zootoca

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Aim Body size is instrumental in influencing animal physiology, morphology, ecology and evolution, as well as extinction risk. I examine several hypotheses regarding the influence of body size on lizard evolution and extinction risk, assessing whether body size influences, or is influenced by, species richness, herbivory, island dwelling and extinction risk. Location World-wide. Methods I used literature data and measurements of museum and live specimens to estimate lizard body size distributions. Results I obtained body size data for 99% of the world`s lizard species. The body size–frequency distribution is highly modal and right skewed and similar distributions characterize most lizard families and lizard assemblages across biogeographical realms. There is a strong negative correlation between mean body size within families and species richness. Herbivorous lizards are larger than omnivorous and carnivorous ones, and aquatic lizards are larger than non-aquatic species. Diurnal activity is associated with small body size. Insular lizards tend towards both extremes of the size spectrum. Extinction risk increases with body size of species for which risk has been assessed. Main conclusions Small size seems to promote fast diversification of disparate body plans. The absence of mammalian predators allows insular lizards to attain larger body sizes by means of release from predation and allows them to evolve into the top predator niche. Island living also promotes a high frequency of herbivory, which is also associated with large size. Aquatic and nocturnal lizards probably evolve large size because of thermal constraints. The association between large size and high extinction risk, however, probably reflects a bias in the species in which risk has been studied.

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Aim Temperature influences most components of animal ecology and life history – but what kind of temperature? Physiologists usually examine the influence of body temperatures, while biogeographers and macroecologists tend to focus on environmental temperatures. We aim to examine the relationship between these two measures, to determine the factors that affect lizard body temperatures and to test the effect of both temperature measures on lizard life history. Location World-wide. Methods We used a large (861 species) global dataset of lizard body temperatures, and the mean annual temperatures across their geographic ranges to examine the relationships between body and mean annual temperatures.We then examined factors influencing body temperatures, and tested for the influence of both on ecological and life-history traits while accounting for the influence of shared ancestry. Results Body temperatures and mean annual temperatures are uncorrelated. However, accounting for activity time (nocturnal species have low body temperatures), use of space (fossorial and semi-aquatic species are ‘colder’), insularity (mainland species are ‘hotter’) and phylogeny, the two temperatures are positively correlated. High body temperatures are only associated with larger hatchlings and increased rates of biomass production. Annual temperatures are positively correlated with clutch frequency and annual longevity, and negatively correlated with clutch size, age at first reproduction and longevity. Main conclusions Lizards with low body temperatures do not seem to have ‘slower’ life-history attributes than species with high body temperatures. The longer seasons prevalent in warm regions, and physiological processes that operate while lizards are inactive (but warm enough), make environmental temperatures better predictors of lizard life-history variation than body temperatures. This surprisingly greater effect of environmental temperatures on lizard life histories hints that global warming may have a profound influence on lizard ecology and evolution.

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Aim We discuss biogeographical hypotheses for the Mediterranean lizard species Podarcis and Teira within a phylogenetic framework based on partial mitochondrial DNA sequences. Methods We derived the most likely phylogenetic hypothesis from our data set (597 aligned positions from the 12S rDNA and phenyl tRNA) under parsimony, distance and maximum likelihood assumptions. Results The species usually included in Teira do not form a strongly monophyletic clade. In contrast, the monophyly of the genus Podarcis is rather well supported. Seven lineages are identified in the genus; in order of appearance within the tree, these are: the Balearic pityusensis and lilfordi pair, the sicula complex, a Tyrrhenian tiliguerta and raffonei pair, muralis, the Siculo-Maltese filfolensis and wagleriana pair, the Balkan group (erhardi, peloponnesiaca, milensis, melisellensis and taurica), and the Ibero-Maghrebian group (bocagei, atrata, hispanica and vaucheri). Conclusions The origin of the three European genera of lacertid assayed (Lacerta, Teira and Podarcis) is hypothesized to have occurred in the Oligocene. For Podarcis, a possible scenario of a Miocene diversification is derived from the sequence data, and the zoogeography of the lineages are discussed in relation to the palaeogeography of the Mediterranean. It is hypothesized that in the early history of the genus the main lineages separated by rapid, numerous and close events that produced a starting point very similar to a polytomy, hard to resolve by parsimony analysis of the data set.

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Temperature sensitivity of digestive processes has important ramifications for digestive performance in ectothermic vertebrates. We conducted a comparative analysis of temperature effects on digestive processes [gut passage times (GPTs) and apparent digestive efficiencies (ADEs)] in five lacertid lizards occurring in insular (Podarcis erhardii, P. gaigeae), and mainland (P. muralis, P. peloponnesiaca, Lacerta graeca) Mediterranean environments. GPTs were negatively correlated to temperature with mainland taxa having 10–20% longer GPTs than island taxa. In contrast to previous studies that estimate ADEs using bomb calorimetry, we compare ADEs by analyzing discrete efficiencies for lipids, sugars and proteins at three temperature regimes (20, 25, and 30°C); each of these categories produces different results. ADEs for lipids and sugars showed a monotonic increase with temperature whereas ADEs for proteins decreased with temperature. Island taxa had consistently higher ADEs than their mainland counterparts for lipids and for proteins but not for sugars. They are characterized by superior energy acquisition abilities despite significantly shorter GPTs. Their increased digestive performance relative to the mainland species appears to allow them to maximize energy acquisition in unproductive island environments where food availability is spatially and seasonally clustered.

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The ability of an animal to shed its tail is a widespread antipredator strategy among lizards. The degree of expression of this defense is expected to be shaped by prevailing environmental conditions including local predation pressure. We test these hypotheses by comparing several aspects of caudal autotomy in 15 Mediterranean lizard taxa existing across a swath of mainland and island localities that differ in the number and identity of predator species present. Autotomic ease varied substantially among the study populations, in a pattern that is best explained by the presence of vipers. Neither insularity nor the presence of other types of predators explain the observed autotomy rates. Final concentration of accumulated tail muscle lactate and duration of movement of a shed tail, two traits that were previously thought to relate to predation pressure, are in general not shaped by either predator diversity or insularity. Under conditions of relaxed predation selection, an uncoupling of different aspects of caudal autotomy exists, with some elements (ease of autotomy) declining faster than others (duration of movement, lactate concentration). We compared rates of shed tails in the field against rates of laboratory autotomies conducted under standardized conditions and found very high correlation values (r > 0.96). This suggests that field autotomy rates, rather than being a metric of predatory attacks, merely reflect the innate predisposition of a taxon to shed its tail.

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Species occurring in sympatry have to effectively segregate their niche in order to co-exist. In the case of ectotherms in particular, the very important parameter of thermal biology has to be taken into account. Here we investigated the thermoregulatory effectiveness (E) of two endemic Greek lizards (Hellenolacerta graeca and Podarcis peloponnesiacus) that live syntopically on a rocky cliff in the Peloponnese. We presumed that the two species would select different microhabitats, to avoid interspecific competition, and follow a similar thermoregulation pattern as they experience the same conditions. We also expected that E values for both species would differ depending on the season. Overall, we found that the two species had similar E values for each season but differentiated partial thermoregulatory attributes. Though they both occurred in the same types of microhabitat, H. graeca selected higher sites (average 99 cm above ground) than P. peloponnesiacus (average 44 cm). Also, the latter achieved higher preferred temperatures during summer and winter. Finally, the effectiveness of thermoregulation for both species varied interseasonally and received its highest values during summer, in response to the lowest thermal quality that was observed then. Similar studies stress the importance of thermal shifts for ectotherm co-existence.

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Caudal autotomy is one of the most effective and widespread defensive mechanisms among lizards. When predators grasp the tail, lizards are able to shed it from the point of the attack and further. Numerous factors have been reported to affect tail-shedding performance such as temperature, age, predation pressure, intraspecific competition etc. Interestingly, the impact of sex on tail loss remains greatly understudied. Here, we analyzed tail autotomy performance, simulated in the lab, in 12 species of lacertid lizards belonging to five genera (Algyroides, Anatololacerta, Hellenolacerta, Ophisops, Podarcis). Our aim was to investigate whether sex affects caudal autotomy and/or the duration of post-autotomic tail movement. We failed to detect any effect of sex on tail loss in the species examined. Also, we did not find any sexual impact on the duration of tail movement after autotomy, with a single exception. Our findings suggest that autotomy serves as a defensive tactic equally in both sexes and is used in the same extent.

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The ability for effective, accurate and precise thermoregulation is of paramount importance for ectotherms so as to survive even in low thermal quality habitats. In order to thermoregulate lizards employ different strategies to take advantage of their habitat including retreat into thermal shelters, shuttling between sunny and shady sites, active choice of background etc. Sympatric species have to be very cautious in habitat use to minimize interspecific competition. The decisive factor is the fine- scale choices of the appropriate microhabitat. Here we evaluated the thermoregulation effectiveness of four lacertids from the central Peloponnese, Greece (Podarcis peloponnesiacus, P. muralis, P. tauricus and Hellenolacerta graeca), that have different phylogenetic background and ecological requirements but live in the very same habitat (in a narrow area of approximately 1.000 m2 at Feneos plateau, altitude 880 m). Mainland, and particularly mountain, lizards are quite effective thermoregulators. We expected that all four species would show high thermoregulatory effectiveness besides the differences that may have in partial thermal features (e.g. preferred temperatures). We assessed thermoregulation effectiveness (E) through three standard thermal parameters: body temperatures (Tb) that animals achieve in the field, operative temperatures (Te) that non-thermoregulating animals reach under natural conditions, and preferred temperatures (Tpref) that animals achieve under laboratory conditions. In line with our hypothesis, all species thermoregulated effectively, though some differences arose among them. Tpref were similar for all species but Tb and Te differed considerably due to the different microhabitats selected, probably to avoid competition. P. tauricus achieved the highest E value (0.88) followed by P. peloponnesiacus and H. graeca (0.76 and 0.72, respectively) while P. muralis received the lowest (0.67). Tbs fell well within the Tset for all species while diel variation was limited, suggesting high precision in thermoregulation. On the other hand, thermal quality of habitat was low (important difference between Tset and Te), highlighting the imperative need for effective thermoregulation.

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Tail autotomy, the self‐induced tail separation from the body, is a common and effective antipredator mechanism in lizards. In this study, we examine the muscle energetics of tail shedding in six lacertid lizard species (Podarcis erhardii, Podarcis peloponnesiaca, Podarcis muralis, Podarcis gaigeae, Podarcis milensis, and Lacerta graeca) from the northeast Mediterranean region. Very long periods of postautotomy tail movement were demonstrated for all species ( min), and differences among species were not statistically significant. Postautotomy tail movement, powered by anaerobic muscle activity, resulted in a strong increase in lactate concentrations and a concomitant depletion of muscle glycogen of exhausted tails relative to resting tails. No significant differences were found in either lactate or glycogen concentrations among the species examined. Duration of movement was negatively correlated with final lactate concentrations. The lack of differentiation in postautotomy energetic physiology in this group of species that have evolved under very different predation environments indicates that postautotomy muscle metabolism involves an overall conservative suite of characters.

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ABSTRACT: The effect of temperature on apparent digestive efficiency (ADE) and gut passage time (GPT) was investigated in two endemic lizard species (Lacerta graeca and Podarcis peloponnesiaca) of the Peloponnese (Greece) in a typical Mediterranean ecosystem. The two taxa have the same thermal preferenda but different thermoregulatory strategies. All animals were force- fed exclusively on mealworms (to eliminate the influence of the diet). The experiment was repeated at three different temperatures (20°C, 25°C and 30°C) in order to detect the influence of temperature. ADE was calculated separately for different nutrients of the food (lipids, sugars and proteins) using classical biochemical methods. Our results demonstrate that in both species GPT changes inversely with increasing temperature. ADE for proteins followed the same pattern. In contrast, ADE for lipids and sugars increased with temperature, but in a distinct way for each species. The performance of the digestion is lower in the case of L.graeca in comparison to P.peloponnesiaca.

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Observations on two endemic lizards of Greece: Peloponnese wall lizard (Podarcis peloponnesiacus) and Greek rock lizard (Hellenolacerta graeca) The Greek Peninsula the Peloponnese is extraordinarily rich in lizard species. Two of these species, the Peloponnese wall lizard (Podarcis peloponnesiaca) and the Greek rock lizard (Hellenolacerta graeca) are endemic to this part of Greece. The author describes his observations on these two species in the wild during two visits to the Peloponnese (September 2008 and June 2009). Furthermore, the behavior and reproduction of both species in captivity is discussed. The Peloponnese wall lizard was found to be an aggressive lizard that inhabits open and sunny habitats. The Greek rock lizard is more docile and prefers shady and more moist habitats in mountainous regions. Interestingly, both species appeared to be more common in the vicinity of human settlements than in the wild. In captivity they lay several clutches a year, each consisting of 4-5 eggs. The eggs hatch after about six weeks of incubation. Hatchlings of the Peloponnese wall lizard look similar to adult females while hatchlings of the Greek rock lizard already display sex differences and have brilliant blue tails. Juveniles of the latter species mature in their second year while the Peloponnese wall lizards take a year longer to become adult.

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The relation between body colors and food source in Western Emerald lizards (Lacerta bilineata) and several other Lacertidae. Captive bred lizards in general and especially Emerald lizards display aberrant pale blue/green body colors. These colors are less attractive than the bright yellow/green colors of lizard in the wild. Experiments were designed to solve this problem. The author subjected groups of captive bred juvenile Western Emerald lizards to different food and lighting conditions. From these experiments it became clear that artificial UV-light or unfiltered sunlight was not sufficient to induce normal body coloration. By changing the diet of the lizards from captive bred insects to wild-caught arthropods normal body coloration began to appear within one week. The feeding of artificial pigments to induce the yellow color did not have any effect on body coloration, while red pigments (carotenoids) induced red ventral coloration in male Peloponnese wall lizards (Podarcis peloponnesiaca) and red coloration of rostral and labial shields in Ocellated lizards (Timon lepidus). These results show that the attractive bright body colors typical for Emerald lizards (and several other lizard species) depend on the source of food.

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Captive bred lizards in general and especially Emerald Lizards dislays aberrant pale blue/green body colors. These colors are less attractive than the bright yellow/green colors of lizards in the wild. Exoeriments were designed to solve this problem. The author subjected groups of captive bred juvenile Western Emerald Lizards (Lacerta bilineata) to different food and lighting conditions. From these experiments it became clear that artificial UV-light or unfiltered sunlight was not sufficient to induce normal body coloration. By changing the diet of the lizards from captive bred insects to wild-caught arthropods normal body coloration began to appear within one week. The feeding of artrificial pigments to induce the yellow color did not have anyeffect on body coloration, while red pigments (casrotenoids) induced red ventral coloration in male Peloponnese Wall Lizards (Podarcis peloponnesiacus) and red coloration of rostral and labial shields in Ocellated Lizards (Timon lepidus). These results show that the attractive bright body colors typical for Emerald Lizards (and several other lizard species) depend on the source of food.

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Many animals display complex colour patterns that comprise several adjacent, often contrasting colour patches. Combining patches of complementary colours increases the overall conspicuousness of the complex pattern, enhancing signal detection. Therefore, selection for conspicuousness may act not only on the design of single colour patches, but also on their combination. Contrasting long- and short-wavelength colour patches are located on the ventral and lateral surfaces of many lacertid lizards. As the combination of long- and short-wavelength-based colours generates local chromatic contrast, we hypothesized that selection may favour the co-occurrence of lateral and ventral contrasting patches, resulting in complex colour patterns that maximize the overall conspicuousness of the signal. To test this hypothesis we performed a comparative phylogenetic study using a categorical colour classification based on spectral data and descriptive information on lacertid coloration collected from the literature. Our results demonstrate that conspicuous ventral (long wavelength-based) and lateral (short wavelength-based) colour patches co-occur throughout the lacertid phylogeny more often than expected by chance, especially in the subfamily Lacertini. These results suggest that selection promotes the evolution of the complex pattern rather than the acquisition of a single conspicuous colour patch, possibly due to the increased conspicuousness caused by the combination of colours with contrasting spectral properties.

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Different kinds of interactions between lizards and plants in the Mediterranean basin have been described. Lizards have shown to `use` plants as a refuge against predators, as a foraging site, as a thermal microhabitat or as a food resource. In the last case, they can either act as herbivores (+/- interaction, consuming vegetative and/or reproductive parts, and damaging the plant to a higher or lower degree) or as mutualists (+/+ interaction, by behaving as legitimate pollinators and/or seed dispersers). The importance of plants as a food resource for Mediterranean lizards has been found to be high in insular habitats, espescially in small islands, where the paucity of arthropod prey availability redirects the foraging activity of lizards towards other nutrient resources. In such small islands, plants may play a major role in the trophic ecology of lacertid lizards, as suggested by recent studies. Likewise, lizards may be important both as efficient pollen transporters and seed dispersersfor a variety of plants. Some of these lizard-plant interactions are unique. The effect lizards have on the reproductive and dispersal succes of some species may be very relevant for plant preserveation, and in turn, the preserveation of prticular behavioral and ecological traits of the particular lizard populations depends, at least partly, on the plants they interact with.

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The complex geological history of the Balkan Peninsula and especially of the Hellenic area (multiple geological events of land connections) during the late Tertiary have likely contributed to the diversification and distribution of many terrestrial animals. Located at the margin of the Eurasian and African plates, this area has experienced tremendous geological alterations since the late Tertiary. Connections offered the opportunities for biological dispersal, while submergence of land bridges brought about distributive isolation among related taxa. If this was a major element influencing the formation of the rich fauna of the Hellenic area, then the phylogenetic relationships of terrestrial taxa should reflect these paleogeographic events. Compared with what is known for the geological history of this region, the impact of those geological events on the historical biogeography of terrestrial animals is less well understood. The reconstruction of phylogenies is of primary importance in the understating of the dynamic patterns of evolution, i.e. the biogeography of a group and the bases of its biological diversity at any level. Although the phylogeny of the genus Podarcis has been the subject of much discussion the relationships among the species are still unclear. Because morphology is so uniform, it provides few characters for phylogenetic analysis, and these tend to be conflicting. Various karyological, immunological and protein electrophoretic studies have been made, but these usually involve only a minority of species, and results from different species combinations are equivocal. Wall lizards of the genus Podarcis (Sauria, Lacertidae) comprises 17-18 currently recognized species in southern Europe, where they are the predominant reptile group. The taxonomy of Podarcis is complex and unstable. Based on DNA sequence data the species of Podarcis falls into four main groups that have substantial geographic coherence (Western Island group, South western group, Italian group and Balkan group). The Balkan species are divided in two subgroups: the subgroup of P. taurica (P. taurica, P. milensis, P. gaigeae and perhaps P. melisellensis), and the subgroup of P. erhardii (P. erhardii and P. peloponnesiaca). We addressed the question of phylogenetic relations among the species of Podarcis encountered in Balkan Peninsula, as they can be inferred from partial mtDNA (cyt b and 16S) and nuclear (c-mos) sequences. Our data support the monophyly of Podarcis and suggest that there are three phylogenetic clades: the clade of P. taurica (P. taurica, P. gaigeae, P. milensis, and P. melisellensis); the clade of P. erhardii (P. erhardii and P. peloponnesiaca) and the clade of P. muralis (P. muralis and P. sicula). The phylogenetic affiliations produced from the molecular data do not agree with the species and especially subspecies groupings predicted from the morphological classification of the populations sampled. By examining intraspecific variability we have found that extant populations of P. erhardii are paraphyletic. The high level of genetic differentiation observed in the mtDNA data between the P. erhardii populations from the Crete and Pori islands and the rest of P. erhardii samples from Cyclades and continental Greece and its phylogenetic position raises questions regarding the inclusion of those populations (Crete and Pori) within P. erhardii. Since, based on morphology, P. peloponnesiaca is a well defined species found in sympatry with P. e. livadhiaca and accepted today as such, then Podarcis from Crete and Pori would also need to be raised to specific rank to avoid the paraphyly of P. erhardii. However, although the differentiation of populations from Crete and Pori islands is clear, we suggest the use of PhyloCode in order to avoid taxonomic confusion at least until further research mainly on morphology becomes available. Thus, for the time being, we refer to wall lizards of Crete and Pori P. erhardii*. With regard to morphological subspecies of P. taurica, P. gaigeae and P. erhardii, it is clear that they do not represent monophyletic units and should be re-evaluated in the light of new evidence. The topology of the phylogenetic trees produced and the genetic distances among the clades of the Podarcis may describe a biogeographic hypothesis for these species in the Balkan area. The pattern of the distribution of the proposed taxa is congruent with existing paleogeographic evidence, as inferred by the application of a molecular clock, which supports the view that DNA sequences may be a useful tool for the study of paleogeography. The data analyzed, stress the need for a reconsideration of the evolutionary history of Balkan Podarcis species and help overcome difficulties that classical taxonomy has encountered at both the species and subspecies level. As a whole, the examination of mtDNA lineages in the lizards of genus Podarcis may contribute substantially to the refining of its taxonomic status. Phylogenetic information can now be added to the knowledge of their morphology and distribution, producing a more accurate taxonomy for this group. Our results also confirm that the molecular information in conjunction with geological data can be used to resolve questions about the paleogeography of a region or on the phylogeography of a species.

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Wall lizards of the genus Podarcis (Sauria, Lacertidae) comprise 17 currently recognized species in southern Europe, where they are the predominant reptile group. The taxonomy of Podarcis is complex and unstable. Based on DNA sequence data the species of Podarcis falls into four main groups that have substantial geographical conherence (western island group, southwestern group, Italian group and Balkan group). The Balkan species are divided in two subgroups: the subgroup of Podarcis taurica ( P. taurica, P. milensis, P. gaigeae and perhaps P. melisellensis ), and the subgroup of Podarcis erhardii ( P. erhardii and P. pelopon- nesiaca ). We addressed the question of phylogenetic relations among the species of the P. taurica subgroup encountered in Greece, as they can be inferred from partial mtDNA (cyt b and 16S) sequences. Our data support the monophyly of P. taurica subgroup and suggest that P. gaigeae, P. milensis and P. melisellensis form a clade, which thereinafter connects to P. taurica . Within the previous clade, P. gaigeae is more closely related to P. milensis than to P. melisellensis . However, the specimens of P. taurica were subdivided in two different groups. The first one includes the specimens from northeastern Greece, and the other group includes the specimens from the rest of continental Greece and Ionian islands. Because the molecular clock of the cyt b and 16 rRNA genes was not rejected in our model test, it is possible to estimate times of speciation events. Based on the splitting of the island of Crete from Peloponnisos [ c. 5 million years ago (Ma)], the evolutionary rate for the cyt b is 1.55% per million years (Myr) and for the 16S rRNA is 0.46% per Myr. These results suggest that the evolutionary history of P. taurica in Greece is more complex than a single evolutionary invasion. The data analysed, stress the need for a reconsideration of the evolutionary his- tory of Greek Podarcis species and help overcome difficulties that classical taxonomy has encountered at both the species level.

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Wall lizards of the genus Podarcis (Sauria, Lacertidae) comprise 17 currently recognized species in southern Europe, where they are the predominant nonavian reptile group. The taxonomy of Podarcis is complex and unstable. Based on DNA sequence data, the species of Podarcis falls into four main groups that have substantial geographic coherence (Western island group, southwestern group, Italian group, and Balkan Peninsula group). The Balkan Peninsula species are divided into two subgroups: the subgroup of P.taurica (P. taurica, P. milensis, P. gaigeae, and perhaps P. melisellensis), and the subgroup of P. erhardii (P. erhardii and P. pelo- ponnesiaca). In the present study, the question of phylogenetic relationships among the species of Podarcis encountered in the Balkan Peninsula was addressed using partial mtDNA sequences for cytochrome b (cyt b) and 16S rRNA (16S). The data support the mono- phyly of Podarcis and suggest that there are three phylogenetic clades: the clade A (P. taurica, P. gaigeae, P. milensis, and P. melisell- ensis); the clade B (P. erhardii and P. peloponnesiaca), and the clade C (P. muralis and P. sicula). By examining intraspeciWc relationships it was found that extant populations of P. erhardii are paraphyletic. Furthermore, subspecies previously deWned on the basis of morphological characteristics do not correspond to diVerent molecular phylogenetic clades, suggesting that their status should be reconsidered. The distinct geographic distribution of the major clades of the phylogenetic tree and its topology suggest a spatial and temporal sequence of phylogenetic separations that coincide with some major paleogeographic separations during the geological history of the Aegean Sea. The results stress the need for a reconsideration of the evolutionary history of Balkan Podarcis species and help overcome diYculties that classical taxonomy has encountered at both the species and subspecies level.

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Wall lizards of the genus Podarcis (Sauria, Lacertidae) are the predominant reptile group in southern Europe, including 24 recognized species. Mitochondrial DNA data have shown that, with the exception of P. muralis, the Podarcis species distributed in the Balkan peninsula form a species group that is further sub-divided into two subgroups: the one of “P. tauricus” consisting of P. tauricus, P. milensis, P. gaigeae, and P. melisellensis, and the other of “P. erhardii” comprising P. erhardii, P. levendis, P. cretensis, and P. peloponnesiacus. In an attempt to explore the Balkan Podarcis phylogenomic relationships, assess the levels of genetic structure and to re-evaluate the number of extant species, we employed phylogenomic and admixture approaches on ddRADseq (double digested Restriction site Associated DNA sequencing) genomic data. With this efficient Next Generation Sequencing approach, we were able to obtain a large number of genomic loci randomly distributed throughout the genome and use them to resolve the previously obscure phylogenetic relationships among the different Podarcis species distributed in the Balkans. The obtained phylogenomic relationships support the monophyly of both aforementioned subgroups and revealed several divergent lineages within each subgroup, stressing the need for taxonomic re-evaluation of Podarcis’ species in Balkans. The phylogenomic trees and the species delimitation analyses confirmed all recently recognized species (P. levendis, P. cretensis, and P. ionicus) and showed the presence of at least two more species, one in P. erhardii and the other in P. peloponnesiacus.

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The monophyletic species subgroup of Podarcis tauricus is distributed in the western and southern parts of the Balkans, and includes four species with unresolved and unstudied inter- and intra-specific phylogenetic relationships. Using sequence data from two mitochondrial and three nuclear genes and applying several phylogenetic methods and species delimitation approaches to an extensive dataset, we have reconstructed the phylogeny of the Podarcis wall lizards in the Balkans, and re-investigated the taxonomic status of the P. tauricus species subgroup. Multilocus analyses revealed that the aforementioned subgroup consists of five major clades, with P. melisellensis as its most basal taxon. Monophyly of P. tauricus sensu stricto is not supported, with one of the subspecies (P. t. ionicus) displaying great genetic diversity (hidden diversity or cryptic species). It comprises five, geographically distinct, subclades with genetic distances on the species level. Species delimitation approaches revealed nine species within the P. tauricus species subgroup (P. melisellensis, P. gaigeae, P. milensis, and six in the P. tauricus complex), underlining the necessity of taxonomic re-evaluation. We thus synonymize some previously recognized subspecies in this subgroup, elevate P. t. tauricus and P. g. gaigeae to the species level and suggest a distinct Albanian-Greek clade, provisionally named as the P. ionicus species complex. The latter clade comprises five unconfirmed candidate species that call for comprehensive studies in the future.

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Sex chromosomes are believed to be stable in endotherms, but young and evolutionary unstable in most ectothermic vertebrates. Within lacertids, the widely radiated lizard group, sex chromosomes have been reported to vary in morphology and heterochroma- tinization, which may suggest turnovers during the evolution of the group. We compared the partial gene content of the Z-specific part of sex chromosomes across major lineages of lacertids and discovered a strong evolutionary stability of sex chromosomes. We can conclude that the common ancestor of lacertids, living around 70million years ago (Mya), already had the same highly differentiated sex chromosomes. Molecular data demonstrating an evolutionary conservation of sex chro- mosomes have also been documented for iguanas and caenophidian snakes. It seems that differences in the evolutionary conservation of sex chromosomes in vertebrates do not reflect the distinction between endotherms and ectotherms, but rather between amniotes and anamniotes, or generally, the differences in the life history of particular lineages.

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Tissue regeneration is a fundamental evolutionary adaptation, which is well known in lizards that can regenerate their entire tail. However, numerous parameters of this process remain poorly understood. Lizard tail serves many functions. Thus, tail autotomy comes with many disadvantages and the need for quick regeneration is imperative. To provide the required energy and materials for caudal tissue building, lizards are expected to undergo a number of physiological and biochemical adjustments. Previous research showed that tail regeneration induces changes in the digestive process. Here, we investigated if and how tail regeneration affects the digestive performance in five wall lizard species deriving from mainland and island sites and questioned whether the association of tail regeneration and digestion is affected by species relationships or environmental features, including predation pressure. We expected that lizards from high predation environments would regenerate their tail faster and modify accordingly their digestive efficiency, prioritizing the digestion of proteins; the main building blocks for tissue repair. Second, we anticipated that the general food shortage on islands would inhibit the process. Our findings showed that all species shifted their digestive efficiency, as predicted. Elongation rate was higher in sites with stronger predation regime and this was also applied to the rate with which protein digestion raised. Gut passage time increases during regeneration so as to improve the nutrient absorbance, but among the islanders, the pace was more intense. The deviations between species should be attributed to the different ecological conditions prevailing on islands rather than to their phylogenetic relationships.

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The ability for effective, accurate and precise thermoregulation is of paramount importance for ectotherms. Sympatric lizards often partition their niche and select different microhabitats. These microhabitats, however, usually differ in their thermal conditions and lizards have to adapt their thermoregulation behavior accordingly. Here, we evaluated the impact of habitat partitioning on the thermal biology of three syntopic, congeneric lacertids (Podarcis peloponnesiacus, P. tauricus and P. muralis) from central Peloponnese, Greece. We assessed thermoregulation effectiveness (E) using the three standard thermal parameters: body (Tb), operative (Te) and preferred (Tpref) temperatures. We hypothesized that the microhabitats used by each species would differ in thermal quality. We also predicted that all species would effectively thermoregulate, as they inhabit a thermally challenging mountain habitat. As expected, the partition of the habitat had an effect on the thermoregulation of lizards since microhabitats had different thermal qualities. All three species were effective and accurate thermoregulators but one of them achieved smaller E values as a result of the lower Tb in the field. This discrepancy could be attributed to the cooler (but more benign) thermal microhabitats that this species occupies.

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In recent years, great attention has been paid to many Podarcis species for which the observed intra-specific variability often revealed species complexes still characterized by an unresolved relationship. When compared to other species, P. siculus underwent fewer revisions and the number of species hidden within this taxon may have been, therefore, underestimated. However, recent studies based on genetic and morphological data highlighted a marked differentiation of the populations inhabiting the western Pontine Archipelago. In the present work we used published genetic data (three mitochondrial and three nuclear gene fragments) from 25 Podarcis species to provide a multilocus phylogeny of the genus in order to understand the degree of differentiation of the western Pontine populations. In addition, we analyzed new morphometric traits (scale counts) of 151 specimens from the main islands of the Pontine Archipelago. The phylogenetic analysis revealed five principal Podarcis groups with biogeographic consistency. The genetic distinctiveness of the Podarcis populations of the western Pontine Islands is similar or even more ancient than those observed in numerous other pairs of Podarcis sister species. In the light of these evidences we raise the western Pontine lizards to specific rank; thus they should be referred to as Podarcis latastei.

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Research on the taxonomy of European amphibians and reptiles has increased noticeably over the last few decades, indicating the need for recognition of new species and the cancellation of others. This paper provides a critical review of recent changes and draws up a tentative species list.

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The last species list of the European herpetofauna was published by Speybroeck, Beukema and Crochet (2010). In the meantime, ongoing research led to numerous taxonomic changes, including the discovery of new species-level lineages as well as reclassifications at genus level, requiring significant changes to this list. As of 2019, a new Taxonomic Committee was established as an official entity within the European Herpetological Society, Societas Europaea Herpetologica (SEH). Twelve members from nine European countries reviewed, discussed and voted on recent taxonomic research on a case-by-case basis. Accepted changes led to critical compilation of a new species list, which is hereby presented and discussed. According to our list, 301 species (95 amphibians, 15 chelonians, including six species of sea turtles, and 191 squamates) occur within our expanded geographical definition of Europe. The list includes 14 non-native species (three amphibians, one chelonian, and ten squamates).

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In recent years, there have been numerous studies focusing on the systematics of the wall lizards of the genus Podarcis, uncovering several cases of cryptic diversity, such as the cases of the Cretan (southern Aegean) and Pori (islet between Crete and Peloponnisos) wall-lizards that were recently recognized as distinct species (P. cretensis and P. levendis, respectively). In this study, nucleotide sequences from five genes (two mitochondrial – 16S rRNA & cytb and three nuclear – MC1R, pod15b & pod55) were used to infer intra- and inter- phylogenetic relationships of P. cretensis, P. levendis, and P. peloponnesiacus through Bayesian Inference and Maximum Likelihood approaches using P. erhardii as outgroup. Moreover, the boundaries of the putative species were evaluated by employing several species delimitation methods, aiming to ‘determine’ the exact number of species and their phylogenetic status. The phylogenetic analyses revealed that all the examined species are monophyletic. Among them P. levendis, although without statistical support, appear to be more closely related to P. peloponnesiacus. The Cretan species is further subdivided into three major groups of lineages with distinct geographic distributions whereas P. peloponnesiacus into two. The above results combined with the analyses of species delimitation stress the need for a taxonomic reconsideration of the studied taxa both at the species and subspecies level.

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The evolutionary history of taxa with limited overseas dispersal abilities is considered to be majorly infl;uenced by vicariant events constituting them as model organisms for the interpretation of evolutionary processes. An excellent candidate are the wall lizards of the genus Podarcis exhibiting an impressive level of genetic and morphological diversification and harboring several cases of recently discovered cryptic diversity. In this study, we investigated the effect of palaeogeographic events on the wall lizards’ biodiversity patterns in the Aegean (Greece) as well as the evolutionary processes that acted both in space and time. To accomplish that we studied a group of three endemic Podarcis species (i.e., P. cretensis, P. levendis, and P. peloponnesiacus) both at the intra and interspecific levels employing mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequence data as well as microsatellites. Furthermore, presence information coupled with bioclimatic data (i.e., species distribution modeling, and niche similarity analyses) shed light on the necessary ecological factors for the species’ occurrence. These approaches revealed yet another case of cryptic diversity for this group of lizards, with the existence of two slightly overlapping lineages within P. peloponnesiacus and highly structured populations within P. cretensis. Species diversification occurred during the Pliocene with P. peloponnesiacus divergence into the two lineages dating back to 1.86 Mya. Furthermore, temperature and precipitation related environmental parameters were the most important ones regarding the current distribution of the studied species. Based on the results, we propose a more detailed phylogeographic scenario where both the paleogeography of the area and several environmental parameters have shaped the genetic diversity and the current distribution pattern of this species group.

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In den Jahren 2005 bis 2007 fanden im Becken von Feneos (Peloponnes, Griechenland) umfangreiche Untersuchungen zur Avifauna und Herpetofauna statt. Bei der erstmaligen Erfassung der Vogelwelt im Bergtal konnten 98 Vogelarten nachgewiesen werden, davon 81 Brutvögel, 14 Durchzügler und drei Nahrungsgäste. Für die Herpetofauna gelang der Nachweis von sieben Amphibien- und 26 Reptilienarten.

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Podarcis is a genus of lacertid lizards. It contains over twenty species and represents one of the largest radiations of reptiles in Europe. Podarcis lizards show high molecular diversity but are relatively similar morphologically. Here, I describe cranial osteology of P. muralis, P. siculus, P. hispanicus*, P. melisellensis, P. erhardii, P. peloponnesiacus and P. cretensis. P. erhardii and P. cretensis – until recently regarded as conspecific and considered very similar morphologically – differ in several cranial characters. The studied population of P. cretensis, coming from Elafonisos island, shows some apparently heterochronic traits, such as tripartite occipital condyle, low ascending process of the supraoccipital, open parietal fossa and less well pronounced sexual dimorphism. Heterochrony could also play role in the evolution of P. hispanicus*. This is supported by the absence of median crest of the parietal. Morphometric analyses confirm sexual dimorphism in Podarcis lizards – males have relatively longer and higher skull which results in a higher bite force. This allows them to eat harder prey, enhances their chances in combats and helps maintain a secure grip during copulation.

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Elements of the herpetofauna are in the author`s opinion of great importance for the zoogeographical division of the Palaearctic region. It is suggested that this region be divided into the following four subregions: 1/ arctic, 2/ boreal Euro-Siberian, 3/ bo- real Himalayan-Manchurian and 4/ Mediterranean-Central-Asiatic.

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Benny Trapp, Fotograf, Griechenlandkenner und Leiter des Schutzprojektes `Afrikanisches Chamäleon` auf dem Peloponnes, stellt in diesem Buch alle 62 Reptilien- und Amphibienarten des griechischen Festlandes in faszinierenden Bildern vor. Die Informationen zu Beschreibung, Verbreitung, Lebensraum, Fortpflanzung und Verhalten jeder Art werden durch praktische Tipps zu Beobachtungsmöglichkeiten der oftmals scheuen und heimlich lebenden Tiere ergänzt. Neben Informationen über Land und Leute sowie Naturschutz in Griechenland erfährt man Nützliches über Giftschlangen und zur Naturfotografie. Mit seinen bestechenden, zahlreichen Fotos sicherlich eines der prächtigsten Bücher über europäische Amphibien und Reptilien.

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Podarcis species are well known for their polymorphism and in some cases a concolor morphs hads been observed in many species. This note presents a concolor morph of the endemic P. peloponnesiacus from the Peloponnese Peninsula in Lake Doxa, Corinthia, Greece.

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Most recent molecular studies revealed the phylogeny of Greek Podarcis species, which for years remained elusive, due to discordant data produced from various chromosomal, complement fixation and protein studies. In this report, we analyzed cellular immune responses of spleen- derived lymphocytes from six allopatric Podarcis species encountered in Greece, by assessing two-way mixed lymphocyte reaction (MLR)- induced proliferation. On the basis of stimulation indices (S.I.) as determined from cultures set up from xenogeneic splenocytes coincubated in pairs, we generated a phylogenetic tree, fully consistent with the phylogenetic relationships of Podarcis as determined by parallel analyses based on partial mitochondrial (mt) DNA sequences. Although the exact mechanisms triggering lymphocyte responses in lizard two-way xenogeneic MLR are not fully understood, our results show the potential use of cell-mediated immune responses as an additional approach to mtDNA analysis, for species delimitation within specific lizard taxa.

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We assess associations between chemosensory capacity and foraging mode within lacertid lizards. Species of Lacertidae differ considerably in indices of foraging mode, and therefore seem well suited to test the adaptive nature of a coupling between foraging and sensory ecology. We observed tongue-flick (TF) rates of members from eight species in the field and in experimental conditions with no prey stimuli, with chemical stimuli, with visual stimuli and with both chemical and visual stimuli. All species increased TF rates in response to both purely visual and purely chemical prey cues, and the increase was most pronounced when both types of stimuli were offered simultaneously. Absolute TF rates in experimental conditions differed considerably among species, and species means obtained in experimental situations correlated closely with those observed in the field. Species that spend a relatively large amount of their time budget actively searching for food tend to use their vomeronasal system more frequently. Although all species in our study retained the capacity of recognizing prey chemicals, our data corroborate the idea of a functional link between an active foraging style and the usage of chemical information.

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Evolutionary changes in foraging style are often believed to require concurrent changes in a complex suite of morphological, physiological, behavioural and life-history traits. In lizards, species from families with a predominantly sit-and-wait foraging style tend to be more stocky and robust, with larger heads and mouths than species belonging to actively foraging families. Here, we test whether morphology and foraging behaviour show similar patterns of association within the family Lacertidae. We also examine the association of bite force abilities with morphology and foraging behaviour. Lacertid lizards exhibit considerable interspecific variation in foraging indices, and we found some evidence for a covariation between foraging style and body shape. However, the observed relationships are not always in line with the predictions. Also, the significance of the relationships varies with the evolutionary model used. Our results challenge the idea that foraging style is evolutionarily conservative and invariably associated with particular morphologies. It appears that the flexibility of foraging mode and its morphological correlates varies among lizard taxa.

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Apart from certain species of the African clade, the lizard family Lacertidae has generally been described as consisting of active foragers. We made quantitative field observations of 14 species of lacertid lizards, mainly belonging to the more basal Eurasian clade. Our data show that sit-and-wait foraging is much more widespread in Lacertidae than previously alleged. We also investigated the influence of weather and times of day on foraging activity levels and conclude that for comparative purposes observations should be restricted to circumstances that are optimal for activity. We did not find sex differences in foraging behavior.

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Foraging strategy is often considered to play a central role in moulding diverse aspects of an animal`s general biology. Active foragers should have greater locomotor endurance, allowing high movement activity rates, while sit-and-waiting foragers may be better adapted to sprinting, allowing catching prey by a quick attack from an ambush site, and going with specific predator escape tactics. In this study we investigate these predicted patterns in a set of lacertid lizard species. There is considerable variation in foraging activity within Lacertidae, which allows the close investigation of the co-evolution of the traits considered. We found a tendency of positive correlation of foraging measures (PTM, percentage of time moving; MPM, number of movements per minute) with laboratory measured endurance capacity. However, the relationship of foraging measures with maximal sprint speed remains less clear. MPM correlates negatively with maximal sprint speed, but PTM does not. When sprint speed was corrected for body size, no correlations were found at all.

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Observations of lacertids and their habitats from two trips in 2006 and 2023 in the west and south of the Peloponnese peninsula are summarized. Greek Algyroides Algyroides moreoticus Bibron & Bory de Saint-Vincent, 1833, Greek Rock Lizard Hellenolacerta graeca (Bedriaga, 1886), Balkan Green Lizard Lacerta trilineata trilineata Bedriaga, 1886, Ionic Wall Lizard Podarcis ionicus (Lehrs, 1902) and Peloponnese Wall Lizard Podarcis peloponnesiacus (Bibron & Bory de Saint-Vincent, 1833) were found at various locations. In some cases, four of the mentioned species were found at one location at the same time.