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Algyroides moreoticus, Lacerta agilis, Lacerta graeca, Lacerta oxycephala, Lacerta trilineata, Lacerta viridis, Podarcis melisellensis fiumana, Podarcis muralis albanica, Podarcis peloponnesiaca, Podarcis sicula campestris, Podarcis taurica ionica, Podarcis taurica taurica.

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We found significant variations in the pattern of sexual dimorphism in body size and shape among and within three lacertid species (Podarcis muralis, P. melisellensis and Archaeolacerta oxycephala), which live within a very restricted area (Lake Skadar, Montenegro) and under similar ecological settings. Each species has a specific pattern of size and shape relations between the sexes that proportionally changes with increase in size of the males, contrary to the expectations of Rensch`s rule. Our data do not confirm unequivocally that the level of size differences between the sexes (SSD) is affected by the body shape of two different morphotypes (cylindric vs. flattened body), or by the insularity conditions (island size, distance from mainland and the presence of syntopic lizard species). However, SSD appears to be positively correlated with clutch size at the interspecies level of comparisons.

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Algyroides fitzingeri, Algyroides marchi, Algyroides moreoticus, Algyroides nigropunctatus, Lacerta agilis, Lacerta lepida, Lacerta princeps, Lacerta schreiberi, Lacerta strigata, Lacerta trilineata, Lacerta viridis, Lacerta andreanszkyi, Lacerta armeniaca, Lacerta bedriagae, Lacerta brandtii, Lacerta cappadocica, Lacerta caucasica, Lacerta chlorogaster, Lacerta cyanura, Lacerta danfordi, Lacerta derjugini, Lacerta dugesii, Lacerta fraasii, Lacerta graeca, Lacerta horvathi, Lacerta jayakari, Lacerta laevis, Lacerta monticola, Lacerta mosorensis, Lacerta oxycephala, Lacerta parva, Lacerta perspicillata, Lacerta praticola, Lacerta rudis, Lacerta saxicola, Lacerta vivipara, Gallotia atlantica, Gallotia galloti, Gallotia simonyi, Podarcis erhardii, Podarcis filfolensis, Podarcis hispanica, Podarcis lilfordi, Podarcis melisellensis, Podarcis milensis, Podarcis muralis, Podarcis peloponnesiaca, Podarcis pityusensis, Podarcis sicula, Podarcis taurica, Podarcis tiliguerta, Podarcis wagleriana, Psammodromus algirus, Psammodromus blanci, Psammodromus hispanicus, Psammodromus microdactylus.

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Twenty-four species of lacertid lizards were examined at 31 sites in western Yogoslavia, Greece and Iberia. Comparative observations were made on over 4500 individual lizards, noting such features as times of activitiy, hunting methods, diet, micro- and macrohabitat, refuges used and body temperature. These data are used as a basis for assessing resource partition in related sympatric species, for find out whether different systematic groups have characteristic types of niche, and for comparing cumminity structures in the peninsulas of southern Europa. Acanthodactylus erythrurus, Algyroides marchi, Algyroides moreoticus, Algyroides nigropunctatus, Lacerta agilis, Lacerta graeca, Lacerta horvathi, Lacerta lepida, Lacerta monticola, Lacerta oxycephala, Lacerta mosorensis, Lacerta schreiberi, Lacerta trilineata, Lacerta viridis, Lacerta vivipara, Podarcis bocagei, Podarcis erhardii, Podarcis hispanica, Podarcis melisellensis, Podarcis milensis, Podarcis muralis, Podarcis peloponnesiaca, Podarcis sicula, Podarcis taurica, Psammodromus algirus, Psammodromus hispanicus.

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Differences in surface structure (ober- hautchen) of body scales of lacertid lizards involve cell size, shape and surface profile, presence or absence of fine pitting, form of cell margins, and the occurrence of longitudinal ridges and pustular projections. Phylogenetic information indicates that the primitive pattern involved narrow strap-shaped cells, with low posteriorly overlapping edges and relatively smooth surfaces. Deviations from this condition produce a more sculptured surface and have developed many times, although subsequent overt reversals are uncommon. Like variations in scale shape, different patterns of dorsal body microornamentation appear to confer different and conflicting performance advantages. The primitive pattern may reduce friction during locomotion and also enhances dirt shedding, especially in ground-dwelling forms from moist habitats. However, this smooth microornamentation generates shine that may compromise cryptic coloration, especially when scales are large. Many derived features show correlation with such large scales and appear to suppress shine. They occur most frequently in forms from dry habitats or forms that climb in vegetation away from the ground, situations where dirt adhesion is less of a problem. Microornamentation differences involving other parts of the body and other squamate groups tend to corroborate this functional interpretation. Microornamentation features can develop on lineages in different orders and appear to act additively in reducing shine. In some cases different combinations may be optimal solutions in particular environments, but lineage effects, such as limited reversibility and different developmental proclivities, may also be important in their genesis. The fine pits often found on cell surfaces are unconnected with shine reduction, as they are smaller than the wavelengths of most visible light.

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Kroatien ist eines der herpetologisch artenreichsten Länder Europas und daher ein beliebtes Reiseziel mitteleuropäischer Herpetologen. Aufgrund des in den letzten Jahrzehnten stetig weiter ausgebauten Autobahnnetzes ist das Land gut und schnell zu bereisen, lediglich die Grenzwartezeiten an den Urlaubswochenenden sind noch einigermaßen mühsam, da Kroatien noch nicht im Schengen-Raum aufgenommen wurde. Viele im Rahmen der ÖGH oder Herpetofauna.at durchgeführten Exkursionen führten uns in den letzten Jahren nach Kroatien.

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1. The signals that animals use to communicate often differ considerably among species. Part of this variation in signal design may derive from differential natural selection on signal efficacy: the ability of the signal to travel efficiently through the environment and attract the receiver`s attention. For the visual and acoustic modalities, the effect of the physical environment on signal efficacy is a well-studied selective force. Still, very little is known on its impact on chemical signals. 2. Here, we took a broad, phylogenetic comparative approach to test for a relationship between animals` signal chemistry and properties of their natural environment. Our study focused on lizards from the Lacertidae family. 3. We sampled 64 species across three continents and determined the lipophilic composition of their glandular signalling secretions using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. For each species, an array of environmental variables of high temporal and spatial resolution was obtained from climate databases. 4. Species varied considerably in the overall richness (number of constituents) of their secretions, as well as in the relative contribution of the major chemical compound classes. Signal richness and the relative contribution of the respective compounds exhibited little evidence of phylogenetic relatedness, suggesting that chemical signals may change very rapidly. Neither insularity nor substrate use affected chemical signal composition, however, we found a strong statistical relationship between the chemistry of the lizards` secretions and aspects of the thermal and hydric environment they inhabit. 5. Species from `xeric` milieus contained high proportions of stable fatty acid esters and high molecular weight alcohols in their glandular secretions, which likely increase the persistence of secretion scent-marks. In contrast, species inhabiting `mesic` environments produced secretions of a high chemical richness comprising high levels of aldehydes and low molecular weight alcohols. This chemical mix probably creates a volatile-rich signal that can be used for long-distance airborne communication. 6. We argue that the observed variation in signal design results from differential natural selection, optimizing signal efficacy under contrasting environmental conditions.

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Many animals use their excrements to communicate with others. In order to increase signal efficacy, animals often behaviourally select for specific defecation sites that maximize the detectability of their faecal deposits, such as the tip of rocks by some lizard species. However, the field conditions in which these observations are made make it difficult to reject alternative explanations of defecation site preference; rock tips may also provide better opportunities for thermoregulation, foraging, or escaping predators, and not solely for increasing the detectability of excrements. In addition, we still know little on whether lizard defecation behaviour varies within-species. In this laboratory study, we take an experimental approach to test defecation site preference of Podarcis melisellensis lizards in a standardized setting, and assess whether preferences differ between sexes, and among populations. Our findings show that in an environment where all stones provide equal thermoregulatory advantage, prey availability, and predator pressure, lizards still select for the largest stone in their territory as preferred defecation site. Moreover, we demonstrate that lizards’ defecation preference is a strong conservative behaviour, showing no significant intraspecific variation. Together, these findings corroborate the idea that lizards may defecate on prominent rocky substrates in order to increase (visual) detectability of the deposited faecal pellets.

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The authors give a description of the herpetofauna of some area´s in Yougoslavia they visited in june 1979. Some attention is given to the habitat of several species. The differences between certain island and mainland populations of some Lacerta- and Podarcis-species are discussed to some extend.

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The longevity of several lacertid lizard species in captivity is reported. The conditions of keeping, which have been successful throughout many years, are briefly presented.

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We studied impacts of the introduced small Indian mongoose Herpestes auropunctatus on the herpetofauna on six islands in the Adriatic Sea, Croatia, comparing abundances of reptiles and amphibians on three islands with the mongoose to those on three islands without the mongoose. We used four types of sampling surveys: distance-constrained surveys, visual encounter surveys, special searches and accidental trapping. The horned viper Vipera ammodytes and Balkan green lizard Lacerta trilineata were absent from two mongoose-infested islands (Korčula and Mljet) and rare on the third (Hvar); they were common only on the mongoose-free island where they had historically been present (Brač). The European green toad was absent from one mongoose-infested island, where it had historically been present and rare on the other two. It was common on two of the three mongoose-free islands. Other herpetofaunal species were either very scarce or completely absent on the three mongoose-infested islands. Most of these species also occur on the mainland but are already scarce there; some are strictly protected under Appendix II of the Berne Convention. The recent spread of the mongoose to the European mainland suggests the need for urgent control to protect vulnerable herpetofauna.

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In connectivity conservation and ecological network planning, the selection of focal fragmentationsensitive species represents a priority step. Nevertheless, despite their strategic role, selection of focal species has traditionally been carried out using charismatic and/or non objective approaches. In this way, actions of planning and conservation could be ineffective. Using as a case study Italian reptiles, we apply an expert-based approach for the selection of focal species on the basis of sensitivity to components of habitat fragmentation (habitat area reduction, increase of habitat isolation, increase of edge effect and landscape matrix disturbance) and of intrinsic ecological traits of the species (trophic level, dispersal ability, body size, niche breadth, rarity). The threshold values for each component of fragmentation defined a set of 21 focal species that can be divided into the three macro-components of human-induced habitat fragmentation (HIHF) towards which they show a sensitivity, the suitable spatial scale of populations and relative suitable habitat categories. Among these species, seven can be sampled easily with standard, low-cost field protocols. The selected species largely coincide with the species known in literature as fragmentation-sensitive.

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Predation is one of the major selective forces in the evolution of many behavioural traits, particularly in animals subjected to high predation rates, like lizards. Many factors as predation pressure and habitat complexity are known to shape escape behaviour in lizards. We investigated if different Podarcis species display a similar escape behaviour under similar environmental conditions. We analyzed data from 9 Mediterranean islets: three in eastern Corsica, three in north-eastern Sardinia, inhabited by Podarcis tiliguerta, and three in the eastern coast of the Adriatic sea, inhabited by P. melisellensis (Pm, n=62). Islets were all small in size (from about 1 to 22 ha), characterised by comparable predation pressure (hosting no potential ground predators, i.e. snakes, rats), and were classified in two categories of habitat structure complexity. We considered two main traits of escape behaviour: flight initiation distance (FID) and distance fled (FLD) (Kruskall-Wallis and Mann-Whitney U tests were used). P. tiliguerta from Corsica (Ptc, n=97) and from Sardinia (Pts, n=86) were analysed separately following recent studies suggesting substantial morphological and genetical differences between the two groups. Our results highlighted that in Podarcis the level of wariness was quite a variable feature, linked more to population variability than to differences among species. Ptc displayed the longest FID (significantly longer than Pts, P=0.006), probably to compensate with a greater level of awareness its lower locomotory efficiency due to smaller size (Ptc showed the smallest SVL considering the studied islets). FLD, on the contrary, was a less variable trait, likely related to the escape strategy of individuals: Podarcis populations of different species and islets run comparable distances when escaping, and lizards that hid in a refuge run significantly shorter distances than lizards that just stopped without hiding.

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Anti-predatory behaviour is an important aspect of the ecology of organisms, such as lizards, that occupy an intermediate position in the trophic food chain. Lizards, in fact, frequently experience high predation rates and their behavioural response can be shaped by a number of environmental and physiological factors. We analysed flight initiation distance, distance fled and refuge use frequency in Podarcis melisellensis populations inhabiting medium and small sized islands of the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. The level of wariness greatly varied among populations of different islands, while the length of the distance fled by lizards was more homogeneous across sites and, in average, it was shorter for lizards that entered a refuge rather than for lizards that did not hide. Most of the recorded variability could be probably related to differences in habitat structure among islands: lizard wariness, indeed, was higher in poorly vegetated islands, despite these islands did not host ground predator species. Even if this study provides just a preliminary description of P. melisellensis anti-predatory behaviour, our results suggest that interesting interactions between strength of predation and habitat complexity occur in shaping lizard escape process in the so called “Vis Archipelago”.

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The Italian wall lizard, Podarcis siculus and the Dalmatian wall lizard, Podarcis melisellensis are two lizards from the family of Lacertidae. When this two species share same habitat, P. siculus outcompetes P. melisellensis as a dominant competitor, usually leading to extinction of P. melisellensis. We investigated the behavior of these two species of lizards, Podarcis siculus and Podarcis melisellensis in a new environment. In order to do so, we observed habituation period in the open field test and 8-arm radial maze. Habituation is an extremely simple form of learning, in which an animal, after a period of exposure to a stimulus, stops responding. We had 28 specimens of each species, 14 females and 14 males. Each experiment lasted between 15 and 23 minutes. Parameters of interest were: latency time, time spent in the central vs. marginal area and returning into hiding place. We tested for the behavioral differences between the species and sexes. After behavioral testing, the animals we sacrificed and levels of monoamines (5ht, DA, NA) in the brain was analyzed with HPLC. P. melisellensis showed bolder behavior, spending more time in open spaces, while P. siculus was more agile and found food quicker and in general learned faster than P. melisellensis. Consistent with literature, females were bolder than males. Specific traits correlated with neurotransmitter levels. Each species adapted in a different way to the same environment. We propose these two species of lizards as a good model for understanding the neurobiological basis of adaptive behavior, warranting further research.

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Ambientali, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy 3Laboratoire d’Ecologie Alpine, University Grenoble Alpes, University Savoie Mont Blanc, CNRS, LECA, Grenoble, France 4Kosmos – Museo di Storia Naturale dell’Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy 5Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy 6I.P.L.A., Istituto per le Piante da Legno e l`Ambiente, Torino, Italy Correspondence Gentile Francesco Ficetola, Dipartimento di Scienze e Politiche Ambientali, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 10, 20126 Milano, Italy. Email: francesco.ficetola@gmail.com Funding information Italian Ministry for Research, Grant/Award Number: 2017KLZ3MA Editor: Ana Margarida Coelho dos Santos Abstract Aim: Analyses of biogeographical patterns and macroecology of islands require large datasets reporting the occurrence of species. The Mediterranean region is a biodiver- sity hotspot, which hosts a large number of reptile species and has been the focus of many studies. Nevertheless, comprehensive inventories describing the features and biodiversity of these environments are lacking. We gathered a dataset summarizing data on reptile distribution on islands of the Mediterranean basin and Macaronesia, also including detailed information on the geographical features. Location: Islands from the Mediterranean Basin, the Atlantic Ocean within the Mediterranean biogeographical region, and Macaronesia (Canary and Savage Islands, Azores, Madeira and Cape Verde). Time period: Present. Taxon: Reptiles (squamates and turtles). Methods: Initially, we developed a geographical database describing islands of the study region, then gathered information on reptile occurrences from 757 bibliograph- ical sources, including atlases, published papers and the grey literature. Through a critical review of these sources, we also obtained information on the status of popula- tions (native, island endemic or non-native) and on the reliability of occurrence data. Results: We obtained basic geographical information from 1875 islands covering the whole study region and with a very broad range of geographical features. We gath- ered >4150 records of reptile occurrence on islands, referring to 198 taxonomic units (species or species complexes); information on population status was available for 84.9% of records. Data are provided as comma-delimited text files. Main conclusions: The database provides a key resource for biogeographical analyses and can also serve as a backbone for conservation studies. The availability of a large database on island features can also be useful for biogeographers working on other taxonomic groups. Nevertheless, more data are required for some geographical areas, in order to ascertain the status (e.g., native vs. non-native) of many populations and to understand the interplay between natural and human-driven processes.

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The interspecific relationships among female size, clutch size, egg size, and hatchling size were examined for 64 European lacertids. The eggs of all species increased linearly in both linear dimensions and mass during incubation. Across species initial egg mass was positively correlated with juvenile mass, with an allometric relationship exponent of 0.87. Initial egg mass across species increased proportionally with female mass to the power of 0.57. Moreover, an increase in maternal mass was also accompanied by an increase in clutch size. The number of eggs per clutch across species scaled with female mass to the power of 0.39. Removing the effect of female mass resulted in a negative correlation between egg mass and clutch size. Species for which the average egg size was lower than expected on the basis of female mass, tended to have larger relative clutch size. The total egg mass per clutch was about one third of female mass (exponent 0.94).

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Within populations, individual animals may vary considerably in morphology and ecology. The degree to which variation in morphology is related to ecological variation within a population remains largely unexplored. We investigated whether variation in body size and shape among sexes and age classes of the lizard Podarcis melisellensis translates in differential whole-animal performance (sprint speed, bite force), escape and prey attack behaviour in the field, microhabitat use and diet. Male and female adult lizards differed significantly in body size and head and limb proportions. These morphological differences were reflected in differences in bite strength, but not in sprint speed. Accordingly, field measurements of escape behaviour and prey attack speed did not differ between the sexes, but males ate larger, harder and faster prey than females. In addition to differences in body size, juveniles diverged from adults in relative limb and head dimensions. These shape differences may explain the relatively high sprint and bite capacities of juvenile lizards. Ontogenetic variation in morphology and performance is strongly reflected in the behaviour and ecology in the field, with juveniles differing from adults in aspects of their microhabitat use, escape behaviour and diet.

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The Herpetological Collection of the Trieste Natural History Museum has almost 700 specimens of European Sauria belonging to about 33 taxa, including all the lacertids of northern Adriatic re- gions. The origin of the collection dates back to the foundation of the Museum of Trieste in 1846, but it was increased mainly between 1871 and 1939. The Herpetological Collection of the Trieste Natural History Museum has a great scientific and historical importance; it documents the varia- tion of the composition and distribution of northern Adriatic Sauria fauna during this century, in- cluding endemic varieties typical of little islands.

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A phylogenetic-comparative approach was used to assess and refine existing secondary structure models for a frequently studied region of the mitochondrial encoded large subunit (16S) rRNA in two large lizard lineages within the Scincomorpha, namely the Scincidae and the Lacertidae. Potential pairings and mutual information were analyzed to identify site interactions present within each lineage and provide consensus secondary structures. Many of the interactions proposed by previous models were supported, but several refinements were possible. The consensus structures allowed a detailed analysis of rRNA sequence evolution. Phylogenetic trees were inferred from Bayesian analyses of all sites, and the topologies used for maximum likelihood estimation of sequence evolution parameters. Assigning gamma-distributed relative rate categories to all interacting sites that were homologous between lineages revealed substantial differences between helices. In both lineages, sites within helix G2 were mostly conserved, while those within helix E18 evolved rapidly. Clear evidence of substantial site-specific rate variation (covarion-like evolution) was also detected, although this was not strongly associated with specific helices. This study, in conjunction with comparable findings on different, higher-level taxa, supports the ubiquitous nature of site-specific rate variation in this gene and justifies the incorporation of covarion models in phylogenetic inference.

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Podarcis melisellensis (Dalmatian wall lizard) and Podarcis siculus (Italian wall lizard) are related lizard species of family Lacertidae. Field and laboratory research have demonstrated that P. melisellensis is being competitively excluded by P. siculus, especially on small islands. Besides differences in size and diet, one of the reasons for the endangerment of P. melisellensis might be a difference in behavior, which is primarily regulated through monoamine neurotransmitter systems. The aim of this thesis was adaptation of the current method for measurement of serotonin concentrations in the rat brain by HPLC for measurements in the lizard brain, and search for the potential difference in serotonin concentrations as a possible neurobiological background of the observed differences in behavior. The method was successfully adapted for measurements in the lizard brain with optimal pH of 2,8, and injection volume of the sample of 30 mL. Linearity and selectivity of the method, as well as daily reproducibility was satisfactory. Serotonin concentrations in the brains of P. melisellensis i P. siculus, did not significantly differ. Gender difference was also not significant. We can therefore assume that previously observed differences in behavior might be induced primarily by differences in catecholamine levels in the brains of the two lizard species.

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We discuss three aspects of the thermal biology of lacertid lizards. First, we provide an overview of the available data on field body temperatures (Tb), the thermal sensitivity of various performance functions and selected body temperatures in different species of lacertid lizards. We also briefly summarise information on the mechanisms of thermoregulation. Second, we discuss recent developments to estimate the »precision« of thermoregulation, and the contribution of distinct behavioural mechanisms. Finally, we revise available evidence for the existence of evolutionary adjustments of thermal characteristics in lacertid lizards. Existing studies have mainly dealt with within- and among-species differences in thermoregulatory behaviour (selected temperatures) and thermal physiology of adults (optimal temperatures, heating rates). Available data provide only limited evidence for clear-cut evolutionary shifts in thermal physiology characteristics along climatic gradients.

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Phenetic relationships in insular populations of Lacerta sicula and L. melisellensis correspond to geologic ages of the islands in two regions of the Adriatic Sea. Populations of L. melisellensis on older islands are more similar to populations of L. sicula than are L. melisellensis from younger islands, and examination of characters reflecting trophic structures of these lizards suggests that convergent evolution has progressed further in the populations on older islands. A rough correspondence between phenetic similarities of populations and island sizes was investigated by means of multiple regression analyses in which geographic features of islands were used as independent variables and means of selected morphologic characters were dependent variables. Island area, length and distance to the mainland were the most important variables `explaining` interpopulation variations in measures of trophic structures, dorsal scale counts, and numbers of femoral pores in L. melisellensis. Lizards from small isolated islands generally have larger bodies, relatively wider snouts and heads, relatively longer heads, more dorsal scales, and more femoral pores than L. melisellensis from larger islands near the mainland. Larger lizards with relatively larger head dimensions on small islands are believed to be the results of adaptations to situations of reduced interspecific interactions and restricted distributions of food resources. Dorsal scale count variations may be related to climatic heterogeneity, but the evidence is inconclusive. Likewise, variations in the number of femoral pores may be related to variations in a balance between conflicting selective pressures for avoiding predation and facilitating intraspecific communication, but basic information on the functional significance of these characters is lacking. Measures of relative variation for ten meristic characters in L. melisellensis showed no significant pattern of variation, but levels of intrapopulation variation in ratios of head measurements to snoutvent lengths were generally lower in populations on small islands and higher in large island populations. Island area, length, the distance to potential sources of colonists and elevation were shown to be important variables in `explaining` geographic variations in levels of intrapopulation variability of trophic characters. Low levels of relative variation for trophic characters in populations from small isolated islands are generally associated with relatively high levels of sexual dimorphism in head width, suggesting that strong directional selection resulting from intraspecific competition for food has depleted genetic variation affecting these characters. Evidence from gene frequency data and body size distributions on small islands shows that genetic drift and founder effects complicate selectionist interpretations of these trends. The similarity of the trends identified in insular populations of Lacerta to trends identified in other insular populations of lizards suggests a generalized response of lizards to isolation.

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Thirty-one island populations of Podarcis sicula and P. melisellensis from Yugoslavia were examined to determine phenetic similarities based on means of 15 characters. Both cluster analysis and multidimensional scaling (MDS) revealed the following patterns of variation: 1) the two species formed distinct groups; 2) within each species, OTUs from northern and southern islands grouped separately; 3) within P. melisellensis, OTUs from small islands tended to resemble other small island OTUs from geographically close islands. These patterns appear to contradict similarities implied by previous subspecific designations based largely on color and pattern differences. Genetic drift, gene flow, and selection are evaluated as explanations for observed phenetic patterns. Drift appears to be highly unlikely as a major force determining regional, large island, and small island similarities among OTUs. Channel depths and estimates of the rate of net increase in sea level suggest that the northern islands are younger than the southern islands, supporting the idea that gene flow has been restricted among the southern islands and between the two regions for a longer time than among the northern islands. Combined with differences in selection regimes, the recency of gene flow appears to have been important in determining north-south phenetic similarities. Populations on small islands are exposed to qualitatively different selection regimes than those on large islands. The closer similarity of northern, small island OTUs to large island OTUs suggests that the northern OTUs have not responded to small island selection regimes to the same extent that southern island OTUs have.

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One of Darwin`s most widely known conjectures is that prey are tame on remote islands, where mammalian predators are absent. Many species appear to permit close approach on such islands, but no comparative studies have demonstrated reduced wariness quantified as flight initiation distance (FID; i.e. predator–prey distance when the prey begins to flee) in comparison with mainland relatives. We used the phylogenetic comparative method to assess influence of distance from the mainland and island area on FID of 66 lizard species. Because body size and predator approach speed affect predation risk, we included these as independent variables. Multiple regression showed that FID decreases as distance from mainland increases and is shorter in island than mainland populations. Although FID increased as area increased in some models, collinearity made it difficult to separate effects of area from distance and island occupancy. FID increases as SVL increases and approach speed increases; these effects are statistically independent of effects of distance to mainland and island occupancy. Ordinary least-squares models fit the data better than phylogenetic regressions, indicating little or no phylogenetic signal in residual FID after accounting for the independent variables. Our results demonstrate that island tameness is a real phenomenon in lizards.

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The basin of Lake Skadar with its drainage area represents one of the Balkan Peninsula’s hotspots regarding amphibian and reptile fauna. The value of the batracho- and herpetofauna of the Lake Skadar region is reflected in a rich and diverse composition of species. This is undoubtedly the result of the basin’s specific geographic position and complex geological history. Recent studies revealed that Lake Skadar’s watershed is inhabited by 15 amphibian and 36 reptile species. Among these, one amphibian (Pelophylax shqipericus – EN) and two reptile species (Dinarolacerta mosorensis and Vipera ursinii, both VU) are considered to be globally threatened according to IUCN criteria. An additional three reptile species (Emys orbicularis, Testudo hermanni, and Elaphe quatuorlineata) could become threatened in the future. As an attractive tourist area, a significant part of the Lake Skadar region could be impacted by fast and intense anthropogenic changes. Therefore, preserving the network of suitable habitats, maintaining continuous monitoring, and investing in additional research are essential for maintaining this rich local amphibian and reptile diversity.

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`Death-shaking` as a behaviour-pattern is mostly known from the Carnivora /Seitz, 1950;Eibl-Eibesfeldt. 1950; Tembroek, 1958; Heimburger, 1961; Leyhausen, 1965/and carnivorous marsupials /Ewer, 1968/. It is also known from reptiles /Honegger and Heusser, 1969; Hemmer and Sohipp, 1970; Luttenberger, 1977/ but it is only mentioned very superficially and in some cases even incorrectly. Weber /1957/ and Honegger and Heusser /1969/ suppose a fixed connection between seizing the prey and shaking; Do- broruka and Horaekova /1973/ describe vertical shaking in the genus Lacerta. Only Luttenberger /1977/ analysed `death-shaking`, in Dracaena guianensis, bya slow-motion film. No author defines the different elements of the motion; nothing is known about re- leasing factors or effects /`functions`/ of `death-shaking`, and nowhere is `death-sha- king` exactly defined. This paper now will discuss these aspects

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Comparative analyses were carried out about the variability of the pileal shields of different species belonging to the family Lacertidae. The results of the comparisons have been evaluated in respect to the phylogenetical relationships existing between the different genera and species of the family.

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During a vacation in May 2005 the island Dugi Otok was visited. Only two species of lacertid lizards (Podarcis melisellenis and P. sicula) seem to occur on this Dalmatian island while on most of the other islands, at least the more northem located Kvarner Islands, at least either three or four species occur.

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Während eines einwöchigen Aufenthaltes im September 2006 auf der mitteldalmatinischen Insel Brač konnten drei Lacertidenarten nachgewiesen werden. Aufgrund der zu diesem Zeitpunkt recht hohen Tempersaturen fielen die Beobachtungen allerdings recht spärlich aus.

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Podarcis sicula of Italian origin has expanded its range along the Adriatic coast of Croatia, apparently replacing the autochthonous species P. melisellensis by competitive exclusion. We used an experimental approach on newborn lizards to test the hypothesis that direct behavioural interference occurs between P. sicula and P. melisellensis, whereby the former obtains an advantage over the latter. Brief encounters betweenP. sicula and P. melisellensis were more aggressive and more likely to result in clear dominant–subordinate relationships than were brief encounters between pairs of conspecific P. melisellensis. When they cohabited for 3 weeks, individuals in heterospecific pairs were less likely to occupy a thermal microhabitat simultaneously than individuals from homospecific pairs. Contrasts of individuals in heterospecific pairs showed that behavioural interference was asymmetric in favour of P. sicula. During brief encounters P. sicula were more aggressive and dominant than P. melisellensis opponents. When the two species cohabited for longer periodsP. sicula used better, and P. melisellensis poorer, thermal microhabitats than when reared in isolation. In addition, P. sicula grew faster, and P. melisellensis slower, than in isolation. These within-species shifts in microhabitat use and growth were not evident for homospecific pairs living together. Thus, our observations indicate that asymmetric aggressive interactions between hatchlings of our study species reduce an important fitness component (i.e. growth rate) of P. melisellensis. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that direct behavioural interference by P. sicula is the mechanistic basis of the competitive exclusion ofP. melisellensis .

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Researchers often presume that dominant individuals, during an initial series of social interactions, ultimately gain possession of the territory, but detailed studies of the process of social relation establishment in animals are rare. We used an experimental approach on pairs of conspecific newborns of two lizard species (Podarcis sicula and P. melisellensis) to examine whether the outcomes of first encounters are consistent with the formation of social relations during the ensuing three weeks. A major objective was to determine whether social relations expressed during prolonged cohabitation induced divergence of individual growth rates within a dyad. Moreover, we explored to what extent individual differences in growth rate and behavior during social cohabitation paralleled differences expressed when the animals were housed in isolation. Differential expression of behavior within dyads was examined by calculating the difference between values for the two individual lizards. During brief first encounters, access to a localized basking site was determined by agonistic interactions between lizards. Cohabitation of two lizards during prolonged encounters resulted in differences in their thermal microhabitat usage, which in turn induced divergence of their growth rates. The direction and magnitude of the differences in thermal microhabitat use and the divergence in growth rates during prolonged encounters mirrored differences in the interactions exhibited during the first encounter. Moreover, differences between two lizards in initial social interactions, and in thermal microhabitat use and growth rate during prolonged encounters, paralleled differences in thermal microhabitat use exhibited when lizards were housed alone. Thus, it may be possible to predict the outcome of social interactions within dyads based on the differential expression of traits between two lizards housed in isolation.

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Mediterranean islands have complex reptile assemblages, but little is known about the factors that determine their organization. In this study, the structure of as-semblages of Squamata was evaluated based on their species richness and two measures of phylogenetic diversity (variability and clustering). I evaluated the com-position of the assemblages comparing distinct biogeographic subregions within the Mediterranean: Adriatic, Aegean, Balearic, Corsica–Sardinia, Crete, Gulf of Gabés, Ionian Sea, Ligurian Sea, Malta, Sicily, and Tyrrhenian Sea. The effect of island en-vironments and geographical isolation on the diversity metrics was assessed using generalized linear models. The analyses indicated that species richness was mostly influenced by island area and geographical isolation. Assemblages on smaller islands were poorer in species and phylogenetically dispersed, possibly as an effect of inter-specific competition. The species composition of the assemblages was determined by similar environmental drivers within the biogeographic subregions, including is-land area, island elevation, geographical isolation, and aridity. In several subregions, significant patterns of phylogenetic attraction were found in species co-occurrences, caused by the limits imposed by the island size on large predatory species

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Background Lizards of the genus Podarcis are widespread in the Mediterranean region, including islands and island archipelagos. These small-bodied lizards have a predominantly protective green-brown colouration. However, some populations display unusual patterns, in which the colouration is predominantly blue or uniformly black. This study explores the factors that influence this chromatic variation, whether environmental (climate and island conditions) or evolutionary (phylogenetic trait conservatism). The colouration of 1400 individuals (27 species) was analysed in the CIELAB colour space. Results Pagel’s λ indicated that colouration is weakly conserved within phylogenetic lineages. Although the island surface plays a key role in the chromatic variability of these lacertids, geographic isolation and climate hold less influence. The colouration of some small island populations tends to be uniform and dark, possibly due to intense intraspecific competition and lower predatory pressure. Conclusions This study highlights the importance of island populations in understanding the processes that favour the emergence of extreme phenotypes in small ectothermic vertebrates.

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The Italian wall lizard, Podarcis siculus and the Dalmatian wall lizard, Podarcis melisellesis are two lizards from the family of Lacertidae. When this two species share same habitat, P. siculus overpowers P. melisellesis as a dominant competitor, usually leading to extinction of P. melisellesis. In this Graduation thesis I was trying to establish the behaviour of these two species of lizards, Podarcis siculus and Podarcis melisellesis in a new environment. In order to do so, we observed habituation period in open field test and 8-arm radial maze. Habituation is an extremely simple form of learning, in which an animal, after a period of exposure to a stimulus, stops responding. We had 28 specimens of each species, 14 females and 14 males. Each experiment lasted 15min or maximum of 23 minutes. We had 3 trials and then compare first and third trial. Parameters of interest were latency time, time spent in the central vs. marginal area and returning into hiding place. We tested for the behavioural differences between the species and sexes.

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Climatic conditions changing over time and space shape the evolution of organisms at multiple levels, including temperate lizards in the family Lacertidae. Here we reconstruct a dated phylogenetic tree of 262 lacertid species based on a supermatrix relying on novel phylogenomic datasets and fossil calibrations. Diversification of lacertids was accompanied by an increasing disparity among occupied bioclimatic niches, especially in the last 10 Ma, during a period of progressive global cooling. Temperate species also underwent a genome- wide slowdown in molecular substitution rates compared to tropical and desert-adapted lacertids. Evaporative water loss and preferred temperature are correlated with bioclimatic parameters, indicating physiological adaptations to climate. Tropical, but also some popu- lations of cool-adapted species experience maximum temperatures close to their preferred temperatures. We hypothesize these species-specific physiological preferences may con- stitute a handicap to prevail under rapid global warming, and contribute to explaining local lizard extinctions in cool and humid climates.

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Competition between species can lead to ecological and evolutionary differentiation of species. The Italian wall lizard (Podarcis siculus) is a generalist species with broad ecological tolerance and frequently excludes other small lizards. The areals of Podarcis siculus and Podarcis melisellensis sometimes overlap and when that happens P. siculus overpowers P. melisellensis. In order to better understand the behaviour of both species and to explore whether differentiation in behaviour can explain dominant-subordinate interaction between these two species, we tested 28 individuals of each species, of both sexes, in open field and radial maze. Both experiments lasted 15 to 23 minutes and were repeated 3 times in order to habituate the lizard to the new environment. Lizards’ performance in novel and familiar habitat (after habituation) was measured and analysed for potential dispersal and explorative behaviour, cautiousness, risk to predation and food consumption. We hypothesized that P. siculus, as a dominant competitor, wouldshow greater dispersal and explorative behaviour, be more cautious and less prone to predation and would consume more food. As expected, P. siculus showed greater dispersal and explorative behaviour in both open field and radial maze and ate more food. Also, P. siculus was more cautious and less prone to predation. These results show that different behaviour can help competitors persevere and outcompete other individuals in ecologically competitive relationships.

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Lizards belonging to the species Lacerta sicula, L. oxycerihala, and L. mellisellensis from numerous Adriatic Islands and from adjacent mainland populations show no variation in karyotype. All are characterized by the diploid number 2n - 3S consisting of 36 acrocentric macrochromosomes and 2 acroce trie microchromosomes.

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Twenty populations of Lacerta sicula, L. melisellensis, and L. oxycephala from the coast and islands of the Adriatic were studied electrophoretically. Genetic similarity measured by the Rogers coefficient (Rogers, 1972) ranges from 0.84-1.0 among populations of melisellensis, and from 0.88-0.99 among populations of sicula. Interspecific values range from 0.61-0.74 in this pair, and both have values of about 0.43 compared to oxycephala. There is circumstantial evidence for hybridization and introgression in one population. Among Lacerta, amounts of genetic variation are greater in (1) mainland populations than in putatively relict island populations, and (2) on large islands than on small islands. Some fringing islands that are separated by a short linear distance and shallow channel depth from the parent island show a `small island effect,` i.e., a precipitous drop in variation compared with the mother island but only if these fringing islands are tiny ($acksimeq leqslant$ 0.01 sq. km). Genetic drift is implicated. Larger fringing islands do not show an area effect and are genetically virtually identical to the parent island. An analysis of allele frequencies in populations on different islands suggests that most of the polymorphisms are being selected, but that some (e.g., esterases) have a pattern consistent with the neutraldrift hypothesis. Stepwise multiple regression was used to analyze the geographic correlates of mean heterozygosity. The results, like those of a previous study of island lizards, are consistent with the predictions of the time-divergence theory of variation, but do not allow firm conclusions. The theory predicts that the smaller (more ecologically distinct) and the older an island, the lower the heterozygosity in its population. It is argued that directional selection is the main force eroding genetic variation; the smaller an island, the more directional selection will prevail over stabilizing selection; the older an island, the longer such selection has operated. Very small islands, where genetic drift appears to reduce variability, were excluded from most of the regression studies.

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We studied the impact of restrictions by the thermal environments on body temperatures (Tbs) and microhabitat use of the lacertid lizards Podarcis melisellensis and Podarcis muralis in a Mediterranean area (Croatia) during autumn. The thermal conditions at available microhabitats were assessed with copper models that measured the operative temperatures (Te) at different sites. We estimated the thermal suitability of microhabitats by quantifying the extent of similarity between the Tes and the range of selected temperatures (i.e., the Tbs that lizards maintain in zero-cost conditions in a laboratory thermogradient; Tsel). Both species maintained, throughout most of day, Tbs that were on average 2–4 C below both Tsel and the Tbs recorded in the field during summer. Nevertheless, the Tbs measured during autumn were in the upper range of available Tes and were much closer to the Tsel than were the Tes. In addition, lizards were most often observed in the warmest microhabitats and were often seen basking. These results indicate that lizards were actively thermoregulating. The Te measurements show that lizards encounter suitable thermal conditions (i.e., where Tes is within Tsel) in only a restricted subset of the available microhabitats and during only a relatively short period of the day. Thus, lizards are constrained to maintain relatively low Tbs during autumn by the generally low available Tes. Although lizards were clearly thermoregulating, they appeared to accept lower Tbs during activity in autumn than in summer. A possible reason for this seasonal shift in activity Tbs is that achievement of higher Tbs during autumn is only feasible by confining activities to some specific microhabitats, which may severely constrain other behaviors, such as foraging.

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Background and Purpose: Competitive exclusion is thought to be involved in the distribution of the lizards Podarcis sicula and P. melisellensis (Lacertidae) along the Adriatic coastal region of Croatia. It is hypothesized that robust and aggressive P. sicula colonized the East Adriatic coast and numerous islands, where it replaced P. melisellensis by direct behavioral interference. Material and Methods: Here we report on a study of habitat selection of sympatric populations of P. sicula and P. melisellensis on the small Adriatic island of Vrgada. We examine differences in habitat usage by the two species during summer and fall, and evaluate lizard sighting frequency in different habitat categories in relation to their availability. Results: The two species differed significantly in habitat use; P. sicula used more frequently houses and walls in village, fields and rocks near sea, whereas P. melisellensis preferred all types of stonewalls. P. sicula showed the highest niche breadth, and was also the most abundant species. The observed sighting frequency of both species in different habitat categories differed significantly from their availability. Although variation in habitat use between summer and fall was detected in both species, the between-species difference in habitat occupation was consistent in both seasons. Conclusion: The observed differences in habitat preferences between the sympatric populations of two species are qualitatively similar to those exhibited on islands inhabited by only one of both species. This suggests that differences in habitat use are species-specific and may delay or even prevent complete exclusion.

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Thermal and trophic niche relationship between podarcis melisellensis and Lacerta oxycephala were studied from island of Vis in June and September 1997. We recorded 289 cloacal temperatures and related substrate and aur temperatures considering sex and age categories. It seems that p. melisellensis posses a certain independence from microhabitat temperatures as in many reptiles adaptet to life in desert regions. Females and subadults of L. oxycephala showed similar patterns. A study of diet showed that the most important prey groups for both species were Formicoidea. Food niche overlap between species was very high.

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Thermal and trophic niche relationship between podarcis melisellensis and Lacerta oxycephala were studied from island of Vis in June and September 1997. We recorded 289 cloacal temperatures and related substrate and aur temperatures considering sex and age categories. It seems that p. melisellensis posses a certain independence from microhabitat temperatures as in many reptiles adaptet to life in desert regions. Females and subadults of L. oxycephala showed similar patterns. A study of diet showed that the most important prey groups for both species were Formicoidea. Food niche overlap between species was very high.

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We studied the thermoregulatory behaviour and microhabitat use of the lacertid lizards Podarcis sicula and Podarcis melisellensis on the island Vrgada (East Adriatic, Croatia) during early spring. The sympatry of the two Podarcis species on Vrgada is exceptional in that most other small islands in the Adriatic harbour only one of the two species, likely as the result of competitive exclusion. It is thought that the dominant robust colonizing P. sicula replaces the more slender native P. melisellensis on those islands were it gets a foothold. We here test the hypothesis that on Vrgada, despite apparent syntopy on a macrohabitat scale, P. sicula occupies the better microhabitats and forces P. melisellensis into (thermally) less favourable ones. We measured field body temperatures of active lizards of both species, and compared them to operative temperatures and temperatures selected in laboratory conditions, to compare the accuracy and effectiveness of thermoregulation between the two species. We also estimated the thermal quality of the microhabitats occupied by the two species. In addition, we checked for possible differences in activity cycles and (thermoregulatory) behaviour.

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The Dalmatian wall lizard Podarcis melisellensis and the Italian wall lizard P. siculus inhabit the Adriatic coastal region of Croatia, representing the most abundant members of the regional herpetofauna. Because of strong interspecific competition they are sympatric on the mainland and larger islands, while sympatry is usually absent on smaller islands. The robust and aggressive P. siculus colonized the East Adriatic coast and numerous islands, where it replaced autochthonous P. melisellensis by competitive exclusion. In our work we question possible framework of their distribution on Eastern Adriatic islands.

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Aspects of trophic niche in a lizard community of three syntopic species, the Common Wall Lizard (Podarcis murali), the Dalmatian Wall Lizard (P. melisellensis) and the Dalmatian Algyroides (Algyroides nigropunctatus)were studied in a submediterranean habitat on Cres Island (the Northern Adriatic, Croatia). We collected a total of 71 faecal pellets from May to October 1997. Prey availability was estimated by two types of traps for invertebrates, during the same period. All three species preyed on a wide variety of invertebrates, but mainly on insects. The most important prey groups for P. muralis and P. melisellensis were Coleoptera, Araneae, Opiliones and Diptera. A. nigropunctatus feeds predominantly on Araneae. Predominant prey in traps were Diptera, Formicidae and Coleoptera. Electivity scores for individual prey taxa were very highly (positively) correlated with relative availability of Opiliones and Araneae, positively correlated with Coleoptera and negatively correlated with Diptera for all three studied species. Food niche overlap was highest between P. muralis and P. melisellensis (Ojk=0.93).

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In diesem Naturführer werden auf über 100 Farbfotos alle mitteleuroipäischen Arten und darüber hinaus auch süd- und osteuropäische vorgestellt: Frösche, Kröten, Molche und Salamander, Schildkröten, Echsen und Schlangen. Fachkundige Texte informirern über Kennzeichen, Vorkommrn, Verhalten, Fortpflanzung, Ernährung und Besonderheiten. Der bewährte Kosmos-Farbcode teilt die Amphibien und Reptilien nach ihrer Verwandtschaft in 5 Gruppen ein und erleichtert so die Bestimmung. Die praktischen Klappen bieten interessante Zusatzinformationen über Froschlurchentwicklung, Laichformen und anatomischen Besonderheiten bei Reptilien.

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Diversity of amphibians and reptiles, as well as threat factors were investigated during last decade in the wide area of the Vrmac hill. Field methodology included active searching and visual observation of species along defined transects. In total, 29 species were recorded, what comprises about 54% of amphibian and reptile fauna known for Montenegro. Main threat factors for amphibians and reptiles in the area of Vrmac hill are: urbanization, habitat fragmentation and destruction, fires, illegal landfills, waste waters, direct killing by locals and road killing.

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Diversity of reptile fauna, as well as threat factors were investigated during April and May 2019 in the settlement Mareza. Field methodology included active searching and visual observation of species along defined transects. In total, 20 reptile species were recorded, what comprises about 55 % of reptile fauna known for Montenegro. According to obtained results, area of Mareza can be considered as important reptile diversity hotspot in Montenegro. First finding of Xerotyphlops vermicularis in this area contribute to knowledge of its distribution range. Three identified species (Emys orbicularis, Testudo hermanni and Elaphe quatuorli neata) are listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive. None of identified species are vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered, upon the IUCN Red List. Almost all identified species are protected on national level. Main threat factors for reptile fauna in the area of Mareza are: urbanization, habitat fragmentation and destruction, fires, illegal landfills, direct killing by locals and road killing.

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This paper presents an updated checklist of Amphibians and Reptiles of Montenegro. The checklist contains 52 species (including two species complexes), compiled from published literature and personal field surveys. Species complexes are the Anguis fragilis complex and the Lacerta viridis complex. Trachemys scripta is introduced, while Podarcis siculus is potentially introduced species. Migratory species include three sea turtles (Caretta caretta, Chelonia mydas and Dermochelys coriacea). Additionally, there are four potentially present species (Proteus anguinus, Mediodactylus kotschyi, Tarentola mauritanica and Podarcis tauricus), which presence is doubtful or still not confirmed with certainty in Montenegro. National and international protection as well as conservation status of Amphibians and Reptiles is given.

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In recent years there has been an exponential increase in the amount of published DNA sequences, as it has become one of the most popular sources of data for reconstructing phylogenies. A number of studies have attempted to resolve the relationships of groups of lacertids using mitochondrial DNA sequence data, in particular Podarcis and Gallotia (e.g. THORPE et al., 1994; 1996; GONZALEZ et al., 1996; FU et al., 1997; HARRIS, 1997; HARRIS et al., 1998a; 1999; CASTILLA et al., 1999a,b). Reassessment of these data suggest some alternative phylogenies to those previously published, and also highlight possible problems. Two studies have attempted to unravel the phylogeny of the whole family using mitochondrial DNA sequences (FU, 1998; HARRIS et al., 1998b). By combining these essentially congruent data sets, and reanalysing levels of support for the phylogenies produced, a more complete estimate of relationships across the family is produced. This is then compared to alternative sources of evidence, primarily morphological (ARNOLD, 1989), biochemical (MAYER & BENYR, 1994) and karyological (OLMO et al., 1993). Reasons for discrepencies are discussed, as are the relative advantages and disadvantages of the different sources of phylogenetic inference.

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In 1981/2 during five journeys to Yugoslavia distributional, ecological and systematic data were collected for the following species, mainly in the coastal area: Salamandra salamandra, Triturus cristatus, T. vulgaris, Bombina variegata, Bufo bufo , B. viridis, Hyla arborea, Rana dalmatina, R. latastei, R. ridibunda, Emys orbicularis , Testudo hermanni, Anguis fragilis, Ophisaurus apodus, Lacerta oxycephala , L. trilineata, L. viridis, Podarcis melisellensis, P. muralis , P. sicula, Coluber viridiflavus, Malpolon monspessulanum, Natrix natrix .

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Short note on a subadult Podarcis melisellensis fiumanus feeding on a red-winged grasshopper on the Croatian island of Lošinj.

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Although rapid adaptive changes in morphology on ecological time scales are now well documented in natural populations, the effects of such changes on whole-organism performance capacity and the consequences on ecological dynamics at the population level are often unclear. Here we show how lizards have rapidly evolved differences in head morphology, bite strength, and digestive tract structure after experimental introduction into a novel environment. Despite the short time scale (
36 years) since this introduction, these changes in morphology and performance parallel those typically documented among species and even families of lizards in both the type and extent of their specialization. Moreover, these changes have occurred side-by-side with dramatic changes in population density and social structure, providing a compelling example of how the invasion of a novel habitat can evolutionarily drive multiple aspects of the phenotype.

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Italian wall lizard, Podarcis siculus (Rafinesque, 1810) and Dalmatian wall lizard, Podarcis melisellesis (Braun, 1877) are two species from family Lacertidae. Podarcis siculus is widespread in Italy, but spreads also on Adriatic islands, while Podarcis melisellesis is spread over coastal belt from northwest coast of Italy to nortwestern Albania. When these two species share the same habitat, Podarcis siculus overpower Podarcis melisellesis as the dominant competitor. In this Graduation thesis I have studied learning as one of the factors influencing the competition between these two species. The research was carried out on total of 56 individuals. Prior to the experimental procedure, the animals passed the three-day habituation and then they were tested for ten days in the eighth radial labyrinth. The results have shown that females of P. siculus move more and change their behavior after the seventh day, suggesting some form of spatial recognition. Also, the results showed that males of P. melisellensis showed a trend of increasing entering in goal zone, which indicate level of spatial recognition. But, overall, this study has shown that learning is not crucial factor which can affects dominance of one species over the other, also it indicates that both of this species are not the best model examples for learning, as only two parameters have been statistically and ecologically significant.

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We describe polymerase chain reaction primers and amplification conditions for 13 highly polymorphic microsatellite DNA loci isolated from the Dalmatian wall lizard, Podarcis melisellensis. The number of alleles per locus ranged from 12 to 41, with levels of observed heterozygosity between 0.62 and 0.94. Most of these loci were successfully cross-amplified in the closely related species P. sicula, but levels of polymorphism were always lower.

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Males of the lizard Podarcis melisellensis occur in three distinct colours that differ in bite performance, with orange males biting harder than white or yellow ones. Differences in bite force among colour morphs are best explained by differences in head height, suggesting underlying variation in cranial shape and/or the size of the jaw adductors. To explore this issue further, we examined variation in cranial shape, using geometric morphometric techniques. Additionally, we quantified differences in jaw adductor muscle mass. No significant differences in size corrected head shape were found, although some shape trends could be detected between the colour morphs. Orange males have relatively larger jaw adductors than yellow males. Not only the mass of the external jaw adductors, but also that of the internal jaw adductors was greater for the orange morph. Data for other cranial muscles not related to biting suggest that this is not the consequence of an overall increase in robustness in orange individuals. These results suggest that differences in bite performance among morphs are caused specifically by an increase in the mass of the jaw adductor, which may be induced by differences in circulating hormone levels.

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Through their direct action on behaviour or through their influence on morphology and performance, circulating testosterone (T) levels are mediators of aggressive displays and interactions. T levels also affect the degree of parasite infection, through their effects on immunocompetence. We tested these ideas on a population of lizards, which exhibits a colour polymorphism. Males occur in 3 different colours (white, yellow, orange), providing an opportunity to test the idea of morphs being alternative solutions to the evolutionary challenges posed on the link between hormones, morphology, performance, and parasite load. Morphs differ in size, and bite force capacity, but they don’t differ in locomotion performance or activity pattern. Here, we test the hypothesis that these differences are related to differences in testosterone levels and parasite loads between morphs, suggesting a balance between different fitness effects. Secondly we test the existence of a correlation between T and different performance variables. We found that higher T levels increase bite force capacity and that the orange morph indeed has a higher blood plasma T level than the yellow morph, and that it suffers more from parasite (mite) infection. It seems that selection pressures have indeed induced alternative solutions in this species, reflected in different morphs.

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Species with alternative phenotypes offer unique opportunities to investigate hormone–behavior relationships. We investigated the relationships between testosterone, corticosterone, morphology, performance, and immunity in a population of lizards (Podarcis melisellensis) which exhibits a color polymorphism. Males occur in three different color morphs (white, yellow, orange), providing an opportunity to test the idea of morphs being alternative solutions to the evolutionary challenges posed on the link between hormones, morphology, performance, and immunity. Morphs differed in bite force capacity, with orange males biting harder, and in corticosterone levels, with yellow males having lower levels than orange. However, morphs did not differ in testosterone levels or in the immunological parameters tested. At the individual level, across morphs, testosterone levels predicted size-corrected bite force capacity, but no relation was found between hormone levels and immunity. Our results do not support the testosterone-based polymorphism hypothesis and reject the hypothesis of a trade-off between testosterone and immunity in this species, but provide a mechanistic link between testosterone and a sexually selected performance trait.

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Permanent colour polymorphisms may be maintained by complex interactions between physiological traits (e.g. immunity) and environmental pressures. In this study we investigate morph specific variation in parasite load and cellular immune response (induced by a Phytohaemagglutinin, PHA injection) in a colour polymorphic population of the Dalmatian wall lizard (Podarcis melisellensis), where adult males have bright white, yellow or orange throats and ventral sides. Orange males have larger heads and can bite harder than the others. To examine seasonal effects, analyses were performed at an early and late stage in the reproductive season (May and September). Infection with mites and ticks did not differ among morphs, but was more severe at the end of the reproductive season. Fewer orange individuals were infected with haemogregarines at the end of the season, but white males were always more infected (higher number of haemogregarines in their blood) than other morphs. White and yellow males showed an increased PHA response towards the end of the season, but PHA response decreased in the orange morph. Finally, across all morphs, a relationship was found between ectoparasite load and PHA response. Our study provides indications of alternative life-history strategies among colour morphs and evidence for an up-regulation of the immune function at the end of the reproductive season.

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If alternative phenotypes in polymorphic populations do not mate randomly, they can be used as model systems to study adaptive diversification and possibly the early stages of sympatric speciation. In this case, non random mating is expected to support genetic divergence among the different phenotypes. In the present study, we use population genetic analyses to test putatively neutral genetic divergence (of microsatellite loci) among three colour morphs of the lizard Podarcis melisellensis, which is associated with differences in male morphology, performance and behaviour. We found weak evidence of genetic divergence, indicating that gene flow is somewhat restricted among morphs and suggesting possible adaptive diversification.

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Although laboratory measurements of whole-animal performance have become a standard tool in evolutionary biology, if and how interindividual variation in performance translates into differential fitness remains poorly understood. Particularly rare are studies that have connected performance to mating and reproductive success in the field. In this study, we use DNA microsatellite parentage analyses to study the fitness gradient in a colour-polymorphic lizard, Podarcis melisellensis. We report on two surprising findings. First, contrary to our expectations, individual sprint speed and bite force capacity correlated negatively, not positively, with male mating and reproductive success. Second, we found an unexpected degree of promiscuity in females. Also, contrary to traditional parental investment theory, the variation in mating success and reproductive success was as high in females as in males. Our results call for a better integration of whole-animal performance and life history traits, and for a reconsideration of the ideas on the likeliness of sexual selection acting on female phenotypes.

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Males of a Croatian population of the lacertid lizard Podarcis melisellensis exhibit a striking polymorphism, with coloration of the throat and abdomen ranging from completely white, to yellow or orange. In a first attempt to explore the potential ecological and evolutionary significance of this polymorphism, we compared the three forms of males in aspects of their morphology, whole-animal performance, behavior, and ecology. Orange males are, on average, larger in snout-vent length and have disproportionately larger heads than either white or yellow males. This is reflected in orange males having higher bite force capacity and theoretically an increased access to harder prey. Residual limb length, maximal sprint speed and maximal exertion do not differ among color morphs. Body temperatures in the field are similar in the three morphs, but yellow males are caught at sites with slightly higher air temperatures than are orange and white males. Behavioral observations show no differences in time budgets or in the timing of activities among morphs. Microhabitat use is also similar in the three color morphs, but orange males were more often initially seen on rocky substrates. Our findings suggest that the observed polymorphism likely does not originate from a divergence in niche or use of resources, but possibly reflects an underlying polymorphism in mating tactics.

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Sexual selection molds the morphology, physiology and behavior of males in many animals. At first glance, it seems reasonable to assume that females would use the same male traits and signals in mate choice as males do during male–male competition. However, intra- and intersexual competition may affect traits in the same or the opposite direction, with differing strength. We investigated which color, morphometric and performance traits are selected for through male–male competition and whether female mate preference is based on these same traits and/or dominance status in the three male color morphs of the lizard Podarcis melisellensis. Males with relatively bigger heads and relatively higher bite forces were more likely to win fights and orange males were always dominant over the other morphs. Females, however, preferred scents of bigger males that were in better body condition, and surprisingly had lower bite force capacities. They did not show a preference for scents of any particular color morph or for scents of the more dominant males. These results indicate that intra- and intersexual competition may result in selection for different secondary sexual traits in P. melisellensis.

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We present the distribution of amphibians and reptiles in the Bjelopavlici region (central Montenegro) based on our field work records and of literature data. Twelve species of amphibians and 25 species of reptiles were recorded at 49 localities of which 57 % records has not been previously published. The greatest diversity of batracho- and herpetofauna was recorded at sites in the river Zeta plain. Our study provides the important information for assessments of diversity of batracho- and herpetofauna of Montenegro and their conservation.

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A key assumption in evolutionary studies of locomotor adaptation is that standard laboratory measures of performance accurately reflect what animals do under natural circumstances. One widely examined measure of performance is maximum sprint speed, which is believed to be important for eluding predators, capturing prey, and defending territories. Previous studies linking maximum sprint speed to fitness have focused on laboratory measurements, and we suggest that such analyses may be appropriate for some species and intraspecific classes, but not others. We provide evidence for a general inverse relationship between maximum laboratory sprint speed and the percentage of maximum capacity that animals use when escaping from a threat in the field (the model of locomotor compensation). Further, absolute values of field escape speed and maximum laboratory speed are not significantly related when comparing across a diverse group of Anolis and lacertid lizards. We show that this pattern of locomotor compensation holds both within (i.e., among intraspecific classes) and among lizard species (with some exceptions). We propose a simple method of plotting field escape speed (y-axis) versus maximum laboratory speed (x-axis) among species and/or intraspecific classes that allows researchers to determine whether their study organisms are good candidates for relating laboratory performance to fitness. We suggest that species that reside directly on, or near the `best fitness line` (field escape speed = maximum laboratory speed) are most likely to bear fruit for such studies.

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Bosnia and Herzegovina plays an important role for the diversity of herpetofauna of the Balkans. The composition of the amphibian and reptile fauna has been influenced by both continental and Mediterranean climate. So far, 18 species of amphibians and 29 species of reptiles have been found to inhabit the territory, but due to the overall neglected faunistic research of this region in the last decades, this is presumably not the final number. At 31 localities we observed 12 species of amphibians and 17 species of reptiles representing 66.7 and 58.6% of the total known diversity of amphibians and reptiles, respectively. We recorded new distribution data for 8 species of amphibians and 9 species of reptiles. A zoogeographic analysis showed that the herpetofauna of Bosnia and Herzegovina could be classified into at least 12 chorotypes. While the amphibian assemblages are predominantly influenced by the European temperate climatic conditions, the Mediterranean climate plays a key role for the composition of the reptile fauna.

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An updated checklist is presented for the amphibian and reptile fauna of Croatia. According to historical and recent literature sources, 20 amphibian and 41 reptile species have been recorded so far. Two reptile species, Blanus strauchi and Typhlops vermicularis, are considered doubtful, although there are individual museum vouchers for the country. Presence of a total of 59 species can be considered valid, with two additional considered doubtful. This paper summarizes data from 700 scientific and popular publications, which is the first attempt to publish a complete Croatian herpetological bibliography. Full bibliography is also given for all occurring species and constitutes a basis for future publications.

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The genus Podarcis is a group of lizards that evolved in the Mediterranean area. Lizards play an important ecological role, and due to their great taxonomic and ecological diversity, they are suitable for evolutionary and behavioral research. Dalmatian wall lizard is an autochthonous species of the coastal area of Croatia, while the Italian wall lizard is an opportunistic species that can successfully outcompete autochthonous lizard species. Sociability is one of the five main categories of personality. It is defined as the reaction of an individual to the presence or absence of conspecifics. This study aimed to investigate the differences in the sociability of the Dalmatian wall lizard and Italian wall lizard. The research was carried out on 60 males and 60 females - a total of 120 individuals, from three different locations (Knin, Sinj, Pag). The research was conducted by a three-chamber social selection test which measured several variables: the cumulative time the individual spent in the chamber with an empty cage, the cumulative time the individual spent in the middle chamber, and the cumulative time the individual spent in the chamber with the conspecific. The results of the research have shown that the Italian wall lizard is significantly more sociable than the Dalmatian wall lizard. No significant difference was found between the sexes, within the species.

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In this paper, we present data about the herpetofauna of the Kornati islands, with special refer- ence to Kornat and @ut, collected during several field trips in 2009. Together with the personal comments from our colleagues and literature data, 1 amphibian and 11 reptile species were re- corded on the islands. There is a possibility that Emys orbicularis is now extinct from the island of Kornat, as well as that Testudo hermanii has been introduced on the island of @ut.

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Eingangs werden beschrieben: Die Imponierhaltung, Ausdruck der Angriffslust, und das Treteln, Ausdruck der Unterlegenheit. Beide Gesten kommen sowohl beim Kämpfen als auch gegenüber dem Geschlechtspartner zur Anwendung. Jedoch ist die Imponierhaltung des Männchens gegenüber dem umworbenen Weibehen offenbar ein Rest von Feindseligkeit, denn sie fällt bei gut miteinander bekannten Paaren weg. Von mehreren zusammengesperrten Männchen bekämpft eines alle übrigen, eine Rangordnung innerhalb der Unterlegenen besteht nicht. Eingesessenheit im Terrain erhöht die Kampftüchtigkeit. Auch manche Weibehen kämpfen miteinander; desgleichen Junge ab frühester Jugend. Außerhalb der Fortpflanzungszeit wurden Weibehen von den Männchen zwar auch feindselig behandelt, aber dennoch in anderer Weise als Männchen. Das Bekämpfen ist weniger heftig, und in wenigen Tagen findet ein friedliches Aneinandergewöhnen statt, was gegenüber Männchen niemals eintritt. Die Weibehen wirken bei der Paarung und Paarungseinleitung nie aktiv mit, doch fallen ihre Abwehrmaßnahmen gegen das zwecks Begattung zugreifende Männchen verschieden heftig aus, wodurch sie sehr wahrscheinlich den Erfolg der Begattungsbemühungen beeinflussen können. Auf statistischem Wege wird nachgewiesen, daß die Begattungen in die erste Hälfte eines Zeitraumes zweischen 2 Eiablagen fallen, oft sogar den Eiablagen ganz kurz nachfolgen. Der rote Bauch der männlichen L. melisellensis ist ein Merkmal für die Geschlechtsunterscheidung, aber vielleicht ein erlerntes. Die Unterscheidung der Geschleehter auf Grund anderer optischer Merkmale ist bei sicula nachgewiesen. Außerdem wird das Erkennen des Geschlechts auf chemorezeptorischem Wege geleistet. Die Geschlechtsunterscheidung mit den daran geknüpften Handlungsfolgen — Kampf oder Paarung —steht und fällt also in diesem Falle nicht mit einem einzelnen Kennzeichen. Auch das Ineinandergreifen oder Aufeinanderstßen von Handlungschemen ist nicht maßgebend; ein Männchen erkennt ein anderes als solches in jeder Lebenslage, sowohl in Impnierhaltung als auch bei indifferentem Verhalten und sogar wenn es ausweicht. Die Eidechsen lernen sich persönlich kennen. Es bilden sich durch Aneinandergewöhnen Duldungsfreundschaften, während neu hinzutretende Individuen feindlich behandelt werden. Die Reaktionen aus dem Bereich der Paarbildung und des Kämpfens sprechen auf Angehörige anderer Arten mur sehr beschränkt an.

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In this paper, we present a review of distributional data for reptiles in Slovenia collected prior to April 2009. Data are presented in a 10×10 km UTM grid and divided into two classes by the age: 1995 or earlier, and 1996- 2009. With this review, we would like to create a basis for future field work and emphasize the distributional gaps. For some species, the knowledge of their distribution has increased substantially in the last 13 years (e.g. for Podarcis muralis, Vipera aspis, Zamenis longissimus, Anguis fragilis, Natrix natrix, N. tessellata, and Lacerta viridis / bilineata). The increase in some introduced species (e.g. Trachemys scripta and Testudo hermanni) is probably a consequence of additional introductions by people. On average, the number of UTM squares with recorded presence of autochthonous species has increased by 12% per species after 1995. For some of the species, no more records have been made after 1995 in many areas where they had been recorded before (e.g. Podarcis melisellensis, Vipera ammodytes, V. berus, Emys orbicularis, and Lacerta agilis), which might indicate the possibility of local extinctions. For the future, we recommend a continual monitoring of the population trends concerning individual species.

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Species–area relationships and nestedness patterns were studied in three groups of small terrestrial vertebrates (mammals, reptiles, amphibians) on 14 landbridge islands of the eastern Adriatic. islands ranged in surface area between 15 and 410 km2 and contained from eight to 36 species from a total species pool of 48. reptiles were the most species rich group (S = 28), and had more species than mammals (S = 13) and amphibians (S = 7) combined. island surface area predicted species richness best in reptiles (r2 = 0.79) and most poorly in amphibians (r2 = 0.52). Mammals showed a significantly lower slope of the species–area curve than amphibians and reptiles, and thus accumulated species counts with increase in area at the lowest rate. Nestedness patterns in all groups were significantly more organised than expected by chance. Amphibian nested structure points to extinction dominated and well insularised populations with no subsequent recolonisations. frequent unexpected presences and absences in the nestedness patterns of mammals and reptiles suggest complex biogeographic histories for these two groups, with several factors putatively in operation: heterogeneity in habitats and the original source fauna, post- isolation immigrations and differential extinction rate due to human-caused habitat degradation.

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On a surface area of only 56 542 km2, making for 0, 5% of European territory, Croatia harbours a rich herpetofauna of 21 amphibian and 36 reptile species, which is 26, 9% and 34, 8% of European species richess, respectively. This relatively high biodiversity can be attributed to a high diversity of habitat types and the position of Croatia in the area of four major european biogeographical regions. Since most of the country was left outside ice-cover in the glacials, it served as one of the refuges for European herpetofauna. The specificity of Croatian herpetofauna is characterized by: - high degree of endemism: 11 regionally endemic species and 6 local endems, 9 species with restricted areals in Europe - isolation on islands has produced a number of spatially restricted forms of Podarcis sicula and P. melisellensis whose taxonomic status is still under review, but at least several of them can be considered as endemic subspecies - edges of species` distribution areals for 16 species - hybridisation zones for Pelophylax ridibundus and P.lessonae, Bombina bombina and B. variegata, Triturus carnifex and T. dobrogicus and contact zone for Lacerta bilineata and L. viridis - eight species listed in IUCN red list, categories NT to EN The existing literature on herpetofauna in Croatia is scarce and unsystematic. Published data is summarized and previously unpublished data from field workers is gathered to give an account of a current knowledge of herpetofauna distribution. Species distributions and diversity according to biogeographical regions, type of habitat and altitude are given.

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On a surface area of only 56 542 km2, making for 0, 5% of European territory, Croatia harbours a rich herpetofauna of 21 amphibian and 36 reptile species, which is 26, 9% and 34, 8% of European species richess, respectively. This relatively high biodiversity can be attributed to a high diversity of habitat types and the position of Croatia in the area of four major european biogeographical regions. Since most of the country was left outside ice-cover in the glacials, it served as one of the refuges for European herpetofauna. The specificity of Croatian herpetofauna is characterized by: - high degree of endemism: 11 regionally endemic species and 6 local endems, 9 species with restricted areals in Europe - isolation on islands has produced a number of spatially restricted forms of Podarcis sicula and P. melisellensis whose taxonomic status is still under review, but at least several of them can be considered as endemic subspecies - edges of species` distribution areals for 16 species - hybridisation zones for Pelophylax ridibundus and P.lessonae, Bombina bombina and B. variegata, Triturus carnifex and T. dobrogicus and contact zone for Lacerta bilineata and L. viridis - eight species listed in IUCN red list, categories NT to EN The existing literature on herpetofauna in Croatia is scarce and unsystematic. Published data is summarized and previously unpublished data from field workers is gathered to give an account of a current knowledge of herpetofauna distribution. Species distributions and diversity according to biogeographical regions, type of habitat and altitude are given.

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The morphology of the adrenal gland and relationships between noradrenalin (NA) and adrenalin (A) cells were studied in selected species of the genus Podarcis. As in other previously-studied genera, the morphology of the adrenal gland is not homogeneous, and the species examined can be divided into two groups according to the relationship between chromaffin and steroidogenic tissue. Podarcis taurica and P. hispanica, in which the two tissues are strongly separated, belong to one group. P. wagleriana, P. muralis, P. sicula, P. peloponnesiacus and P. melisellensis belong to a second group in which dorsal chromaffin ribbons send digitations between the steroidogenic cords. The NA/A cell ratio is higher in species of the first group than in those of the second.

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nterspecific aggression is thought to be driven by competition over either shared resources or mates, with the latter facilitated by mistaken or poor species recognition. However, such aggression may potentially also be modulated by other factors, including residency in territorial species. We tested the relative strengths of intra- and interspecific aggression in the lacertid lizard Podarcis melisellensis by introducing males to both the territories of conspecific males and the territories of a sympatric lacertid, Dalmatolacerta oxycephala. We also conducted reciprocal introductions to test the effect of residency on interspecific aggression in P. melisellensis. Our results show that P. melisellensis exhibit significantly more aggression towards D. oxycephala than towards conspecifics, even though these two species do not closely resemble one another and do not exhibit extensive overlap in diet preferences. We also found an overall effect of residency on behavioural measures of aggression, as well as a clear increase in interspecific aggression towards D. oxycephala in resident relative to non-resident P. melisellensis. These results show that interspecific aggression between sympatric species can exist in the absence of breeding competition and with little resource overlap.

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The Authors outline the present situation and distribution maps of 118 animal species of European Community interest protected by the EU 92/43/EEC Directive in Friuli Venezia Giulia Region (North-eastern Italy). They belong to various phyla and classes (Mollusca [6 species], Annelida [1 species], Arthropoda [27 species], Vertebrata [84 species]), at various degrees of protection included in the lists of the so-called Habitat Directive (All. II, IV, V). In the present situation the main conservation problems concern various hygrophilous lowland-dwelling species, highly menaced from agriculture, pollution and habitat fragmentation. A lot of meadow-dwelling species, on the contrary, are menaced by forest expansion in various karstic and mountain environment. The great expansion of the mountain woods on the alpine mountain chain, on the other hand, has surely favoured various forest species, like a lot of big and medium Carnivores.

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Over the four year period (2007–2010), the authors conducted a field study aimed at drawing up an inventory of batrachofauna and herpetofauna of the Zrmanja river catchment area. Eight species of amphibians and twenty one species of reptiles were detected; through the available literature overview two more reptilian and one amphibian species were added to the list. Therefore, we proved the presence of thirty two species in total. High diversity of amphibians and reptiles indicates great significance of this area and imposes the need to ensure survival of these species through long-term populations monitoring and conservation measures.

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The southern part of Montenegro has been identified as an area with high diversity of herpetofauna. However, comprehensive studies of distribution and diversity patterns of reptiles on the country level are still missing. Such studies are essential in designating areas of special conservation importance and nature protection planning in a milieu of increased habitat loss and degradation due to rapid urbanization and tourism development in this small Mediterranean country. To make progress on this problem, we analyzed distribution and diversity patterns of the lizards in Montenegro using a large database consisting of literature data and our unpublished records. We found that fifteen lizard species inhabit Montenegro, and two additional species may be present. The lizards were most diverse in the Maritime biogeographic region of Montenegro, while low diversity was found predominantly along the state borders in the Mountain-valley region. The identified pattern of lizard diversity is at least partly influenced by sampling bias. The eastern mountainous subregion had a distinct species composition compared to all other parts of the country. The East-Mediterranean chorotype was the most dominant, represented by seven species. The great diversity of the lizard fauna of Montenegro can be attributed to its specific topographic position with great influence of Mediterranean climate, heterogeneity of biomes, complex geological history and diverse physiogeographic features. High lizard species richness in the Maritime region and a unique species composition in the eastern subregion of Montenegro indicate that these areas are of high conservation interest.

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Geometric morphometric techniques were used to examine allometric and non-allometric influences on sexual shape dimorphism (SShD) in the ventral cranium (skull base, palate and upper jaw) of four species of lacertid lizards (Podarcis muralis, Podarcis melisellensis, Dalmatolacerta oxycephala, Dinarolacerta mosorensis). These species differ in body shape, ecology and degree of phylogenetic relatedness. The structures of the ventral cranium that were studied are directly involved in the mechanics of feeding and are connected to the jaw musculature; these structures are potentially subject to both sexual and natural selection. Allometry accounted for a considerable degree of cranial shape variation between the sexes. Allometric shape changes between individuals with smaller cranium size and individuals with larger cranium size are mostly related to changes in the skull base showing pronounced negative allometry. The rostral part, however, either scaled isometrically or showed less pronounced negative allometry than the skull base. Non-allometric intersexual shape variation predominantly involved changes related to the jaw adductor muscle chamber, i.e., changes that are associated with biomechanically relevant traits of the jaw system in females and males. Both allometric and non-allometric shape changes appeared to be species-specific. Our results indicate that natural and sexual selection may be involved in the evolution of SShD.

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Albumins from several species assigned to Lacerta s. 1. and Gallotia were investigated by means of the Micro-Complement fixation technique. The phylogenetic trees evaluated according to Fitch & Margoliash (1967) and Beverley & Wilson (1982) led us to infer a division, which is in accordance with protein electrophoretic results (Mayer & Tiedemann, 1982) as well as with the subgeneric division used before the studies of Böhme (1971) and Arnold (1973).

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Species composition and abundance of reptiles was examined in three different habitats on the island of Cres (Croatia) adjacent to the town of Osor in May 2013. The aim of our study was to examine the sensitivity of biodiversity and similarity indices in reptiles. In each habitat visual observations of reptiles were made by groups of 10 people for 1 hour along a 1 km sampling path. In the first habitat, overgrown pastures surrounded by stone walls, 5 lizard (Podarcis melisellensis, Algyroides nigropunctatus, Podarcis muralis, Lacerta viridis and Pseudopus apodus) and 2 snake species (Hierophis gemonensis and Elaphe quatuorlineata) were observed. In the second habitat, a gravel road on Osorščica hill surrounded by macchia, 3 lizard (P.melisellensis, A. nigropunctatus and L. viridis) and 2 snake species (H. gemonensis and E. quatuorlineata) were found. In the final habitat, stone buildings and walls in the town, 3 species of lizards (P. melisellensis, A. nigropunctatus and Dalmatolacerta oxycephala) were recorded. The dominant species in all three habitats was the Dalmatian Wall Lizard (P. melisellensis). Two biodiversity indices were applied to the data. Simpson’s diversity index indicated that that the second habitat (0.56) had the greatest diversity in terms of species and their abundance, while the Margalef’s index indicated that the first habitat had more diversity (1.69). In addition, Jaccard’s index of similarity indicated that the urban habitat was dissimilar to the other two, while the Bray-Curtis dissimilarity index showed a weak differentiation between the overgrown pastures and the other habitats. The discrepancy in the outputs from the indices highlights the importance of choosing an appropriate mathematical construct to examine biodiversity and habitat similarities.

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10 species (peloponnesiaca, muralis, melisellensis, graeca, oxycephala, horvathi, bedriagae, vivipara, viridis, agilis) of the genus Lacerta were examined by employing protein electrophoretic data for 16 genloci. Gene frequencies are given and genetic distances calculated according to NEI (1971, 1972). These and former attempts to subdivide the genus Lacerta are discussed. The electrophoretic results provide the possibility of a classification of the examined species into groups at the subgenus level corresponding to those valid before BÖHME (1971) and ARNOLD (1973): genus Lacerta subgenus Lacerta s. str. subgenus Podarcis subgenus Archaeolacerta subgenus Zootoca

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The collection of Amphibians and Reptiles of the Museum of Natural History of Ferrara has characteristics of historical representation, taxonomic and zoogeography that may be considered as examples of medium-sized types of collections more preva- lent in Italian museums. It consists of a historic part of the study and a donation from Guido Campadelli. The collection consists of 1739 specimens of amphibians (1734 of which held in 437 containers with ethanol and 5 taxidermized specimens) for a total of 78 amphibian species. There are 811 specimens of Reptiles (769 of which are stored in 526 containers with ethanol and 42 taxidermized specimens) representing a total of 108 species. The findings that form the collection of Amphibians come from 153 loca- lities of 15 states and 12 regions and 29 provinces of Italy. In the batrachological col- lection 62.1% of the total European species, and 94.3% of the total species in Italy, are represented. Zoogeographic regions most represented are the Palaearctic with 67% of the species of Amphibians in the collection and the Neotropical with 29%, fol- lowed by the Ethiopian (6%) and Nearctic (5%). Reptiles specimens come from 247 lo- calities of 15 states and 15 regions and 36 provinces of Italy. In the collection 46,2% of European species and 91,5% of the Italian ones are represented. The most represen- ted zoogeographic region are the Palaearctic with 89% of species in the collection, followed by the Ethiopian (14%), the Eastern (13%), Neotropical (11%) and the Nearctic (7%); australian and malagasy species do not exceed 3%. The herpetology collection was the subject of taxonomic and biogeographic analysis.

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Foraging decisions should reflect a balance between costs and benefits of alternative strategies. Predation risk and resource availability in the environment may be crucial in deciding how cautious individuals should behave during foraging. These costs and benefits will vary in time and context, meaning that animals should be able to adjust their foraging behaviour to new or altered environments. Studying how animals do this is essential to understand their survival in these environments. In this study, we investigated the effect of both insularity and urbanization on risk‐taking and neophobia during foraging in the Dalmatian wall lizard (Podarcis melisellensis). Small islets tend to have both a lower number of predators and less resources. Therefore, islet populations were expected to show more risk‐taking behaviour and less neophobia in a foraging context. Previous studies on behaviour of urban lizards have yielded inconsistent results, but due to a lack of both predators and arthropod prey in urban habitats, we expected urban lizards to also take more risks and behave less neophobic. We sampled several inhabited and uninhabited locations on Vis (Croatia) and surrounding islets. Risk‐taking behaviour was tested by measuring the latency of lizards to feed in the presence of a predator model, and neophobia by measuring the latency to feed in the presence of a novel object. We found that islet lizards do indeed take more risks and were less vigilant, but not less neophobic. Urban and rural lizards did not differ in any of these behaviours, which is in sharp contrast with previous work on mammals and birds. The behavioural differences between islet and island lizards were novel, but not unexpected findings and are in line with the theory of “island tameness”. The effect of urbanization on the behaviour of animals seems to be more complex and might vary among taxa.

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Aim Body size is instrumental in influencing animal physiology, morphology, ecology and evolution, as well as extinction risk. I examine several hypotheses regarding the influence of body size on lizard evolution and extinction risk, assessing whether body size influences, or is influenced by, species richness, herbivory, island dwelling and extinction risk. Location World-wide. Methods I used literature data and measurements of museum and live specimens to estimate lizard body size distributions. Results I obtained body size data for 99% of the world`s lizard species. The body size–frequency distribution is highly modal and right skewed and similar distributions characterize most lizard families and lizard assemblages across biogeographical realms. There is a strong negative correlation between mean body size within families and species richness. Herbivorous lizards are larger than omnivorous and carnivorous ones, and aquatic lizards are larger than non-aquatic species. Diurnal activity is associated with small body size. Insular lizards tend towards both extremes of the size spectrum. Extinction risk increases with body size of species for which risk has been assessed. Main conclusions Small size seems to promote fast diversification of disparate body plans. The absence of mammalian predators allows insular lizards to attain larger body sizes by means of release from predation and allows them to evolve into the top predator niche. Island living also promotes a high frequency of herbivory, which is also associated with large size. Aquatic and nocturnal lizards probably evolve large size because of thermal constraints. The association between large size and high extinction risk, however, probably reflects a bias in the species in which risk has been studied.

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Aim Temperature influences most components of animal ecology and life history – but what kind of temperature? Physiologists usually examine the influence of body temperatures, while biogeographers and macroecologists tend to focus on environmental temperatures. We aim to examine the relationship between these two measures, to determine the factors that affect lizard body temperatures and to test the effect of both temperature measures on lizard life history. Location World-wide. Methods We used a large (861 species) global dataset of lizard body temperatures, and the mean annual temperatures across their geographic ranges to examine the relationships between body and mean annual temperatures.We then examined factors influencing body temperatures, and tested for the influence of both on ecological and life-history traits while accounting for the influence of shared ancestry. Results Body temperatures and mean annual temperatures are uncorrelated. However, accounting for activity time (nocturnal species have low body temperatures), use of space (fossorial and semi-aquatic species are ‘colder’), insularity (mainland species are ‘hotter’) and phylogeny, the two temperatures are positively correlated. High body temperatures are only associated with larger hatchlings and increased rates of biomass production. Annual temperatures are positively correlated with clutch frequency and annual longevity, and negatively correlated with clutch size, age at first reproduction and longevity. Main conclusions Lizards with low body temperatures do not seem to have ‘slower’ life-history attributes than species with high body temperatures. The longer seasons prevalent in warm regions, and physiological processes that operate while lizards are inactive (but warm enough), make environmental temperatures better predictors of lizard life-history variation than body temperatures. This surprisingly greater effect of environmental temperatures on lizard life histories hints that global warming may have a profound influence on lizard ecology and evolution.

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Although Albania has a rich reptile fauna, efforts to reveal its diversity have so far been limited. To fill this gap, we collected available published and unpublished (museum collections, online sources) records of reptile occurrences and conducted several expeditions to search for reptiles in areas with few or no previous records. Our georeferenced database contains 3731 records of 40 species from between 1918 and 2015. Based on this comprehensive dataset, we prepared distribution maps for each reptile species of the country. Applying spatial statistics, we revealed that overall sampling effort was clustered, with hotspots associated with easily accessible areas and natural heritage sites. The maximum number of species per cell was 26 with an average of seven. Cells harbouring large reptile diversity were located along the Adriatic and Ionian coasts, on the western slopes of south Albanian mountains, i.e. in areas generally considered as Balkans biodiversity hotspots or potential historical refugia. We found that species presence and diversity is strongly influenced by landscape features. Diversity of land cover, altitudinal variation, temperature and precipitation variation explained the observed pattern in our models. Our study presents the largest database of reptile occurrences to date and is the first to analyse reptile diversity patterns in Albania. The database and the diversity patterns can provide a basis for future macroecological studies and conservation planning.

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Today, many ecosystems are pressurized by the introduction of new predator species. Prey populations that fail to adapt and overcome their naïveté towards these predators may go extinct. The first step in overcoming naïveté is to develop the ability to recognize the predator as a threat. To predict the effect of predator introduction on prey populations, it is therefore important to understand how the sensory systems of local populations are used to recognize risky situations, such as predator presence. In this study, we tested the ability of the Dalmatian wall lizard Podarcis melisellensis (Braun, 1877) to detect and recognize both native and introduced predators as a threat. The focus was on the chemical senses of P. melisellensis as the genus Podarcis is assumed to use these for predator detection. We compared the lizards’ behavioural responses to chemicals obtained from predator species that ranged from specialist saurophagous to generalists and opportunists. The non-native predators were introduced either 2000 years ago or as recent as 80 years ago. At least some island populations do not have the ability to recognize predators through the chemical modality. These lizards are, therefore, deprived of a sense that enables them to detect a threat when the predator is beyond hearing or viewing distance. This could imply vulnerability towards potential invasive predator species.

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Newly introduced predators constitute a major threat to prey populations worldwide. Insular prey animals in particular often do not succeed in overcoming their naivety towards alien predators, making them specifically vulnerable. Why this is the case remains incompletely understood. Here, we investigate how the ability to detect and respond to predator chemical cues varies among populations of the Dalmatian wall lizard, Podarcis melisellensis. Lizards were sampled from five locations in south-eastern Croatia (one mainland location and four islands) that varied in the composition of their predator community. We observed the lizards’ behaviour in response to chemical cues of native saurophagous snakes (the Balkan whip snake, Hierophis gemonensis, and eastern Montpellier snake, Malpolon insignitus) and an introduced mammalian predator (the small Indian mongoose, Herpestes auropunctatus – a species held responsible for the loss of numerous insular reptile populations worldwide). Mainland lizards showed elevated tongue-flick rates (indicative of scent detection) as well as behaviours associated with distress in response to scents of both native and introduced predators. In sharp contrast, island lizards did not alter their behaviour when confronted with any of the predator cues. Alarmingly, even lizards from islands with native predators (both snakes and mammals) and from an island on which mongooses were introduced during the 1920s were non-responsive. This suggests that insular populations are chemosensorily deprived. As failure at the predator-detection level is often seen as the most damaging form of naivety, these results provide further insight into the mechanisms that render insular-living animals vulnerable to invasive species.

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Planning conservation actions requires detailed information on species’ geographic distribution. Species distribution data are most needed in areas hosting unique or endangered biodiversity. Italy is one of the European countries with the highest levels of herpetological diversity and endemism and is home to several threatened species of amphibians and reptiles. Information on the distribution of species’ habitats can help identify sites where the species is most likely to thrive, as viable populations depend on it. Area of Habitat (AOH) maps reveal the distribution of the habitat available to the species within their geographic range. We produced high resolution, freely accessible global area of habitat maps for 60 species of reptiles and amphibians distributed in Italy, which represent 60% of all Italian amphibian and reptile species. We validated a total of 44 AOH maps through a presence-only based evaluation method, with 86% of these maps showing a performance better than expected by chance. AOH maps can be used as a reference for conservation planning, as well as to investigate macroecological patterns of Italian herpetofauna. Furthermore, AOH maps can help monitoring habitat loss, which is known to be a major threat to many reptile and amphibian species in Europe.

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Competetive exclusion between Lacerta sicula and L. melisellensis characterizes the small islands of the Adriatic Sea. In 1958 and 1959 M. Radovanovié introduced Lacerta sicula or Lacerta melisellensis onto islands exclusively occupied by the other species. During the summer of 1971 follow-up observations were made on three of these islands, two of which completely lacked representatives of the introduced species. On the third island, the introduced species appears to be replacing the native form. Minor habitat differences permit coexistence, however the situation is dynamic and probably not at equilibrium. A reciprocal introduction involving the two species on the islands of Pod Kopite and Pod Mraru is announced.

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In the eastern Adriatic, Podarcis siculus, an invasive species, competitively excludes the native Podarcis melisellensis. Monoamine neurotransmitters—serotonin (5HT), dopamine (DA), and noradrenaline (NA)—are implicated in social behavior, and could lie at the basis of the direct behavioral interference of P. siculus with P. melisellensis. To understand the relationship between social behavior and monoamines, as well as the differences in behavior between P. siculus and P. melisellensis, we developed a high-performance liquid chromatography (UV/VIS detection) method with which we were able to reliably measure concentrations of 5HT, DA, and NA in 32 brains of the two lizard species. We observed no statistically significant influence of species, sex, or their interaction on brain NA and 5HT concentrations. Statistically significant influence of species on dopamine levels were recorded, with P. siculus having twice as much dopamine in their brains. Taking into account that a significant aggressive relationship, with P. siculus dominating over P. melisellensis, has been previously observed, and that dopamine directly influences this behavior, the observed differences in dopamine levels could represent a trait in these species and may contribute to the competitive exclusion of P. melisellensis by P. siculus in the eastern Adriatic.

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Aim We discuss biogeographical hypotheses for the Mediterranean lizard species Podarcis and Teira within a phylogenetic framework based on partial mitochondrial DNA sequences. Methods We derived the most likely phylogenetic hypothesis from our data set (597 aligned positions from the 12S rDNA and phenyl tRNA) under parsimony, distance and maximum likelihood assumptions. Results The species usually included in Teira do not form a strongly monophyletic clade. In contrast, the monophyly of the genus Podarcis is rather well supported. Seven lineages are identified in the genus; in order of appearance within the tree, these are: the Balearic pityusensis and lilfordi pair, the sicula complex, a Tyrrhenian tiliguerta and raffonei pair, muralis, the Siculo-Maltese filfolensis and wagleriana pair, the Balkan group (erhardi, peloponnesiaca, milensis, melisellensis and taurica), and the Ibero-Maghrebian group (bocagei, atrata, hispanica and vaucheri). Conclusions The origin of the three European genera of lacertid assayed (Lacerta, Teira and Podarcis) is hypothesized to have occurred in the Oligocene. For Podarcis, a possible scenario of a Miocene diversification is derived from the sequence data, and the zoogeography of the lineages are discussed in relation to the palaeogeography of the Mediterranean. It is hypothesized that in the early history of the genus the main lineages separated by rapid, numerous and close events that produced a starting point very similar to a polytomy, hard to resolve by parsimony analysis of the data set.

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The occurrence and form of sex chromosomes were investigated with the aid of C-banding and 4′-6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining in 13 species of lacertid lizards. The results obtained show the presence in five species of a female heterogamety in which the two sex chromosomes have the same shape and size, but the W differs from the Z in being almost entirely heterochromatic. This condition is clearly similar to that found in some snakes and considered to be an early stage of differentiation of sex chromosomes by Singh et al. (1976, 1980). A more evolved condition may be that found in three other species in which the W is distinctly smaller than the Z. A third situation is that found in all Podarcis species which, even though they are considered to be among the more evolved species in the family, possess two sex chromosomes that are indistinguishable. In general, the situation in lacertids may be compatible with the hypothesis of sex chromosome evolution put forward by Singh et al. (1976, 1980). However a differentiation mechanism of this kind does not seem to be well established in lacertids, and is probably not the only mechanism that is in operation in this family.

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Chromosomal inter- and intraspecific variation in Lacertidae. The karyology of various species from the family Lacertidae (Reptilia, Sauria) has been studied with conventional and C-banding techniques. The study shows that this family is not so conservative from a karyological viewpoint as considered til! now. In fact supernumerary chromosomes have been observed in two of the species investigated. Moreover an inter- and intraspecific variability has been found in the C-banding pattern of the various species studied. The situation found in Podarcis sicula is particularly remarkable. Different Cbanding patterns have been observed in three different subspecies and in two populations of the same subspecies. The C-banding technique evidences also the existence in some of the species studied of a female sex heteromorphism, in which the W chromosomes is completely heterochromatic. These observations suggest that in lacertid lizards the evolution of the sex chromosomes follows the same steps hypothesized for snakes.

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The karyology of various species from the family Lacertidae (Reptilia, Sauria) has been studied with conventional and C-banding techniques. The study shows that this family is not so conservative from a karyological viewpoint as considered till now. In fact a higher diploid number than that generally observed in most species of Lacertidae and supernumerary chromosomes have been observed in three of the species investigated. Moreover an evident interand intraspecific variability has been found in the C-banding pattern of the various species studied. The situation found in Podarcis sicula is particularly remarkable. Different C-banding patterns have been observed in three different subspecies and in two populations of the same subspecies. These variations do not show a well defined trend and their role in the evolution of lacertid lizards is discussed. The C-banding analysis evidences also the existence in two of the species studied of a female sex heteromorphism, in which the W chromosome has the same shape and size as the Z, but differs from it in being completely heterochromatic. This situation reminds that observed in some snakes and suggests that in lacertid lizards the evolution of sex chromosomes might have followed the same steps previously hypothesized for ophidians.

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Now that Yugoslavia is rapidly becoming a European tourist centre, many herpetologists may be interested in the variety and abundance of forms which can be seen and collected there. This is a short account of the species seen during the last two weeks of March 1964 in an area so far little visited by British herpetologists. Rainfall was high during this period, in contrast apparently to the dry summer. It was understood from the local population that the visit was too early to see the larger lacertids and snakes.

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Many animals display complex colour patterns that comprise several adjacent, often contrasting colour patches. Combining patches of complementary colours increases the overall conspicuousness of the complex pattern, enhancing signal detection. Therefore, selection for conspicuousness may act not only on the design of single colour patches, but also on their combination. Contrasting long- and short-wavelength colour patches are located on the ventral and lateral surfaces of many lacertid lizards. As the combination of long- and short-wavelength-based colours generates local chromatic contrast, we hypothesized that selection may favour the co-occurrence of lateral and ventral contrasting patches, resulting in complex colour patterns that maximize the overall conspicuousness of the signal. To test this hypothesis we performed a comparative phylogenetic study using a categorical colour classification based on spectral data and descriptive information on lacertid coloration collected from the literature. Our results demonstrate that conspicuous ventral (long wavelength-based) and lateral (short wavelength-based) colour patches co-occur throughout the lacertid phylogeny more often than expected by chance, especially in the subfamily Lacertini. These results suggest that selection promotes the evolution of the complex pattern rather than the acquisition of a single conspicuous colour patch, possibly due to the increased conspicuousness caused by the combination of colours with contrasting spectral properties.

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The Balkan Peninsula is a hot spot for European herpetofaunal biodiversity and endemism. The rock climbing lizards Dalmatolacerta oxycephala and Dinarolacerta mosorensis and the ground-dwelling Dalmatian wall lizard Podarcis melisellensis are endemic to the Western Balkans, and their ranges largely overlap. Here, we present a comparative phylogeographical study of these three species in the area of their codistribution in order to determine the level of concordance in their evolutionary patterns. Phylogenetic analyses were performed based on two mitochondrial genes (cytochrome b and 16S rRNA), and a molecular clock approach was used to date the most important events in their evolutionary histories. We also tested for correlations regarding genetic differentiation among populations and their geographical distances. For all three species, a significant correlation between genetic and geographical distances was found. Within D. oxycephala, two deeply separated clades (‘island’ and ‘mainland clade’), with further subdivision of the ‘mainland clade’ into two subclades (‘south-eastern’ and ‘north-western’), were found. High sequence divergences were observed between these groups. From our data, the time of separation of the two main clades of D. oxycephala can be estimated at about 5 mya and at about 0.8 mya for the two subclades of the mainland clade. Within D. mosorensis, coalescence time may be dated at about 1 mya, while D. mosorensis and D. montenegrina separated around 5 mya. The results imply the existence of complex palaeo-biogeographical and geological factors that probably influenced the observed phylogeographical patterns in these lacertid species, and point to the presence of numerous glacial/interglacial refugia. Furthermore, the observed cryptic genetic diversity within the presently monotypic species D. oxycephala prompts for a revision of its taxonomic and conservation status.

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At the western side of Dinarides-Hellenides mountain chain 12 species of lacertid lizards occur. All hitherto investigated species appeared to be phylogeographically highly structured. Their present phylogeographic patterns are the result of the complex topography and the geotectonic history of the region, multiple events of range retractions and subsequent expansions during Pleistocene climatic oscillations but also distinct ecological preferences of the species, interspecific competition, overwater dispersals and unintentional anthropogenic introductions. The phylogeography of Podarcis siculus, P. melisellensis, P. tauricus, Algyroides nigropunctatus, Dalmatolacerta oxycephala and Dinarolacerta mosorensis will be discussed in details.

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A 903 bp section of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene was sequenced from 73 specimens of Podarcis melisellensis collected at 52 localities distributed over the major part of the species´ range. In addition, parts of the 12S (about 470 bp) and 16S rRNA (about 500 bp) genes were analysed for 11 representative samples leading to a congruent phylogeny. Our study includes representatives of all 20 subspecies recognized today. The phylogenetic analysis of the sequence data revealed three main clades: mainland with nearby islands, Vis archipelago, and Lastovo archipelago. The degree of mitochondrial DNA divergence among these clades suggests a separation of the respective population groups during the earliest Pleistocene. The phylogenetic pattern observed within the species is in sharp contrast to the actual taxonomic division into subspecies. A correlation between genetic diversity of P. melisellensis populations and paleogeography of the regions they inhabit is discussed.

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In this paper, we present the results of a study conducted in the Great Ulcinj Beach area, including its hinterland and Ada Island. In the study area, we recorded 10 species of amphibians (Lissotriton vulgaris, Bombina variegata, Bufo bufo, Pseudepidalea viridis, Hyla arborea, Pelophylax ridibundus, Pelophylax lessonae, Pelophylax shqipericus, Rana dalmatina, and Rana temporaria) and 20 species of reptiles (Testudo hermanni, Emys orbicularis, Mauremys rivulata, Caretta caretta, Hemidactylus turcicus, Lacerta viridis, Lacerta trilineata, Podarcis muralis, Podarcis melisellensis, Anguis fragilis, Pseudopus apodus, Natrix natrix, Natrix tessellata, Hierophis gemonensis, Dolichophis caspius, Zamenis longissimus, Elaphe quatuorlineata, Malpolon insignitus, Telescopus fallax, and Vipera ammodytes). Mauremys rivulata and Telescopus fallax were recorded for the rst time in this area.

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The complex geological history of the Balkan Peninsula and especially of the Hellenic area (multiple geological events of land connections) during the late Tertiary have likely contributed to the diversification and distribution of many terrestrial animals. Located at the margin of the Eurasian and African plates, this area has experienced tremendous geological alterations since the late Tertiary. Connections offered the opportunities for biological dispersal, while submergence of land bridges brought about distributive isolation among related taxa. If this was a major element influencing the formation of the rich fauna of the Hellenic area, then the phylogenetic relationships of terrestrial taxa should reflect these paleogeographic events. Compared with what is known for the geological history of this region, the impact of those geological events on the historical biogeography of terrestrial animals is less well understood. The reconstruction of phylogenies is of primary importance in the understating of the dynamic patterns of evolution, i.e. the biogeography of a group and the bases of its biological diversity at any level. Although the phylogeny of the genus Podarcis has been the subject of much discussion the relationships among the species are still unclear. Because morphology is so uniform, it provides few characters for phylogenetic analysis, and these tend to be conflicting. Various karyological, immunological and protein electrophoretic studies have been made, but these usually involve only a minority of species, and results from different species combinations are equivocal. Wall lizards of the genus Podarcis (Sauria, Lacertidae) comprises 17-18 currently recognized species in southern Europe, where they are the predominant reptile group. The taxonomy of Podarcis is complex and unstable. Based on DNA sequence data the species of Podarcis falls into four main groups that have substantial geographic coherence (Western Island group, South western group, Italian group and Balkan group). The Balkan species are divided in two subgroups: the subgroup of P. taurica (P. taurica, P. milensis, P. gaigeae and perhaps P. melisellensis), and the subgroup of P. erhardii (P. erhardii and P. peloponnesiaca). We addressed the question of phylogenetic relations among the species of Podarcis encountered in Balkan Peninsula, as they can be inferred from partial mtDNA (cyt b and 16S) and nuclear (c-mos) sequences. Our data support the monophyly of Podarcis and suggest that there are three phylogenetic clades: the clade of P. taurica (P. taurica, P. gaigeae, P. milensis, and P. melisellensis); the clade of P. erhardii (P. erhardii and P. peloponnesiaca) and the clade of P. muralis (P. muralis and P. sicula). The phylogenetic affiliations produced from the molecular data do not agree with the species and especially subspecies groupings predicted from the morphological classification of the populations sampled. By examining intraspecific variability we have found that extant populations of P. erhardii are paraphyletic. The high level of genetic differentiation observed in the mtDNA data between the P. erhardii populations from the Crete and Pori islands and the rest of P. erhardii samples from Cyclades and continental Greece and its phylogenetic position raises questions regarding the inclusion of those populations (Crete and Pori) within P. erhardii. Since, based on morphology, P. peloponnesiaca is a well defined species found in sympatry with P. e. livadhiaca and accepted today as such, then Podarcis from Crete and Pori would also need to be raised to specific rank to avoid the paraphyly of P. erhardii. However, although the differentiation of populations from Crete and Pori islands is clear, we suggest the use of PhyloCode in order to avoid taxonomic confusion at least until further research mainly on morphology becomes available. Thus, for the time being, we refer to wall lizards of Crete and Pori P. erhardii*. With regard to morphological subspecies of P. taurica, P. gaigeae and P. erhardii, it is clear that they do not represent monophyletic units and should be re-evaluated in the light of new evidence. The topology of the phylogenetic trees produced and the genetic distances among the clades of the Podarcis may describe a biogeographic hypothesis for these species in the Balkan area. The pattern of the distribution of the proposed taxa is congruent with existing paleogeographic evidence, as inferred by the application of a molecular clock, which supports the view that DNA sequences may be a useful tool for the study of paleogeography. The data analyzed, stress the need for a reconsideration of the evolutionary history of Balkan Podarcis species and help overcome difficulties that classical taxonomy has encountered at both the species and subspecies level. As a whole, the examination of mtDNA lineages in the lizards of genus Podarcis may contribute substantially to the refining of its taxonomic status. Phylogenetic information can now be added to the knowledge of their morphology and distribution, producing a more accurate taxonomy for this group. Our results also confirm that the molecular information in conjunction with geological data can be used to resolve questions about the paleogeography of a region or on the phylogeography of a species.

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Wall lizards of the genus Podarcis (Sauria, Lacertidae) comprise 17 currently recognized species in southern Europe, where they are the predominant nonavian reptile group. The taxonomy of Podarcis is complex and unstable. Based on DNA sequence data, the species of Podarcis falls into four main groups that have substantial geographic coherence (Western island group, southwestern group, Italian group, and Balkan Peninsula group). The Balkan Peninsula species are divided into two subgroups: the subgroup of P.taurica (P. taurica, P. milensis, P. gaigeae, and perhaps P. melisellensis), and the subgroup of P. erhardii (P. erhardii and P. pelo- ponnesiaca). In the present study, the question of phylogenetic relationships among the species of Podarcis encountered in the Balkan Peninsula was addressed using partial mtDNA sequences for cytochrome b (cyt b) and 16S rRNA (16S). The data support the mono- phyly of Podarcis and suggest that there are three phylogenetic clades: the clade A (P. taurica, P. gaigeae, P. milensis, and P. melisell- ensis); the clade B (P. erhardii and P. peloponnesiaca), and the clade C (P. muralis and P. sicula). By examining intraspeciWc relationships it was found that extant populations of P. erhardii are paraphyletic. Furthermore, subspecies previously deWned on the basis of morphological characteristics do not correspond to diVerent molecular phylogenetic clades, suggesting that their status should be reconsidered. The distinct geographic distribution of the major clades of the phylogenetic tree and its topology suggest a spatial and temporal sequence of phylogenetic separations that coincide with some major paleogeographic separations during the geological history of the Aegean Sea. The results stress the need for a reconsideration of the evolutionary history of Balkan Podarcis species and help overcome diYculties that classical taxonomy has encountered at both the species and subspecies level.

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Wall lizards of the genus Podarcis (Sauria, Lacertidae) comprise 17 currently recognized species in southern Europe, where they are the predominant nonavian reptile group. The taxonomy of Podarcis is complex and unstable. Based on DNA sequence data, the species of Podarcis falls into four main groups that have substantial geographic coherence (Western island group, southwestern group, Italian group, and Balkan Peninsula group). The Balkan Peninsula species are divided into two subgroups: the subgroup of P.taurica (P. taurica, P. milensis, P. gaigeae, and perhaps P. melisellensis), and the subgroup of P. erhardii (P. erhardii and P. pelo- ponnesiaca). In the present study, the question of phylogenetic relationships among the species of Podarcis encountered in the Balkan Peninsula was addressed using partial mtDNA sequences for cytochrome b (cyt b) and 16S rRNA (16S). The data support the mono- phyly of Podarcis and suggest that there are three phylogenetic clades: the clade A (P. taurica, P. gaigeae, P. milensis, and P. melisell- ensis); the clade B (P. erhardii and P. peloponnesiaca), and the clade C (P. muralis and P. sicula). By examining intraspeciWc relationships it was found that extant populations of P. erhardii are paraphyletic. Furthermore, subspecies previously deWned on the basis of morphological characteristics do not correspond to diVerent molecular phylogenetic clades, suggesting that their status should be reconsidered. The distinct geographic distribution of the major clades of the phylogenetic tree and its topology suggest a spatial and temporal sequence of phylogenetic separations that coincide with some major paleogeographic separations during the geological history of the Aegean Sea. The results stress the need for a reconsideration of the evolutionary history of Balkan Podarcis species and help overcome diYculties that classical taxonomy has encountered at both the species and subspecies level.

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Wall lizards of the genus Podarcis (Sauria, Lacertidae) comprise 17 currently recognized species in southern Europe, where they are the predominant nonavian reptile group. The taxonomy of Podarcis is complex and unstable. Based on DNA sequence data, the species of Podarcis falls into four main groups that have substantial geographic coherence (Western island group, southwestern group, Italian group, and Balkan Peninsula group). The Balkan Peninsula species are divided into two subgroups: the subgroup of P.taurica (P. taurica, P. milensis, P. gaigeae, and perhaps P. melisellensis), and the subgroup of P. erhardii (P. erhardii and P. pelo- ponnesiaca). In the present study, the question of phylogenetic relationships among the species of Podarcis encountered in the Balkan Peninsula was addressed using partial mtDNA sequences for cytochrome b (cyt b) and 16S rRNA (16S). The data support the mono- phyly of Podarcis and suggest that there are three phylogenetic clades: the clade A (P. taurica, P. gaigeae, P. milensis, and P. melisell- ensis); the clade B (P. erhardii and P. peloponnesiaca), and the clade C (P. muralis and P. sicula). By examining intraspeciWc relationships it was found that extant populations of P. erhardii are paraphyletic. Furthermore, subspecies previously deWned on the basis of morphological characteristics do not correspond to diVerent molecular phylogenetic clades, suggesting that their status should be reconsidered. The distinct geographic distribution of the major clades of the phylogenetic tree and its topology suggest a spatial and temporal sequence of phylogenetic separations that coincide with some major paleogeographic separations during the geological history of the Aegean Sea. The results stress the need for a reconsideration of the evolutionary history of Balkan Podarcis species and help overcome diYculties that classical taxonomy has encountered at both the species and subspecies level.

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Wall lizards of the genus Podarcis (Sauria, Lacertidae) are the predominant reptile group in southern Europe, including 24 recognized species. Mitochondrial DNA data have shown that, with the exception of P. muralis, the Podarcis species distributed in the Balkan peninsula form a species group that is further sub-divided into two subgroups: the one of “P. tauricus” consisting of P. tauricus, P. milensis, P. gaigeae, and P. melisellensis, and the other of “P. erhardii” comprising P. erhardii, P. levendis, P. cretensis, and P. peloponnesiacus. In an attempt to explore the Balkan Podarcis phylogenomic relationships, assess the levels of genetic structure and to re-evaluate the number of extant species, we employed phylogenomic and admixture approaches on ddRADseq (double digested Restriction site Associated DNA sequencing) genomic data. With this efficient Next Generation Sequencing approach, we were able to obtain a large number of genomic loci randomly distributed throughout the genome and use them to resolve the previously obscure phylogenetic relationships among the different Podarcis species distributed in the Balkans. The obtained phylogenomic relationships support the monophyly of both aforementioned subgroups and revealed several divergent lineages within each subgroup, stressing the need for taxonomic re-evaluation of Podarcis’ species in Balkans. The phylogenomic trees and the species delimitation analyses confirmed all recently recognized species (P. levendis, P. cretensis, and P. ionicus) and showed the presence of at least two more species, one in P. erhardii and the other in P. peloponnesiacus.

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The Balkan Peninsula constitutes a biodiversity hotspot with high levels of species richness and endemism. The complex geological history of the Balkans in conjunction with the climate evolution are hypothesized as the main drivers generating this biodiversity. We investigated the phylogeography, historical demography, and popula- tion structure of closely related wall-lizard species from the Balkan Peninsula and southeastern Europe to better understand diversification processes of species with limited dispersal ability, from Late Miocene to the Holocene. We used several analytical methods integrating genome-wide SNPs (ddRADseq), microsatellites, mitochondrial and nuclear DNA data, as well as species distribution modelling. Phylogenomic analysis resulted in a completely resolved species level phylogeny, population level analyses confirmed the existence of at least two cryptic evolutionary lineages and extensive within species genetic structuring. Divergence time estimations indicated that the Messinian Salinity Crisis played a key role in shaping patterns of species divergence, whereas in- traspecific genetic structuring was mainly driven by Pliocene tectonic events and Quaternary climatic oscillations. The present work highlights the effectiveness of utilizing multiple methods and data types coupled with extensive geographic sampling to uncover the evolutionary processes that shaped the species over space and time.

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The monophyletic species subgroup of Podarcis tauricus is distributed in the western and southern parts of the Balkans, and includes four species with unresolved and unstudied inter- and intra-specific phylogenetic relationships. Using sequence data from two mitochondrial and three nuclear genes and applying several phylogenetic methods and species delimitation approaches to an extensive dataset, we have reconstructed the phylogeny of the Podarcis wall lizards in the Balkans, and re-investigated the taxonomic status of the P. tauricus species subgroup. Multilocus analyses revealed that the aforementioned subgroup consists of five major clades, with P. melisellensis as its most basal taxon. Monophyly of P. tauricus sensu stricto is not supported, with one of the subspecies (P. t. ionicus) displaying great genetic diversity (hidden diversity or cryptic species). It comprises five, geographically distinct, subclades with genetic distances on the species level. Species delimitation approaches revealed nine species within the P. tauricus species subgroup (P. melisellensis, P. gaigeae, P. milensis, and six in the P. tauricus complex), underlining the necessity of taxonomic re-evaluation. We thus synonymize some previously recognized subspecies in this subgroup, elevate P. t. tauricus and P. g. gaigeae to the species level and suggest a distinct Albanian-Greek clade, provisionally named as the P. ionicus species complex. The latter clade comprises five unconfirmed candidate species that call for comprehensive studies in the future.

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Common Italian names of the amphibians and reptiles present in the geographic Italy are proposed. We analysed a large set of bibliography in order to assess a list of Italian common names used and we proposed the utilization of a single name, also in view of the forthcoming publication of the distribution atlas of the Italian herpetofauna. The criteria used to assign such names follow in general the current use, the possibility to clearly distinguish similar species, geographic and linguistic parameters.

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The present study reports the morphology of leukocytes of 12 European lacertid lizards (Podarcis sicula, P. tiliguerta, P. melisellensis, P. bocagei, P. muralis, Algyroides nigropunctatus, Lacerta viridis, L. bilineata, L. trilineata, L. oxycephala, Timon lepidus, and Zootoca vivipara) stained using May–Grünwald/Giemsa method. The morphology of white blood cells was very similar among species, suggesting a relative morphological uniformity within the lacertid lizards. For six species (i.e. P. sicula, P. tiliguerta, P. melisellensis, P. bocagei, P. muralis, and A. nigropunctatus), we determined the leukocyte differential counts, which may be considered representative of the normal values of the corresponding populations. These results may be useful either in clinical investigation to detect pathologies in wild individuals, as in management and conservation projects to assess the general health conditions of natural wild lizard populations.

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We studied the thermal ecology of the lacertid lizards Lacerta oxycephala and Podarcis melisellensis on the Adriatic island of Vis (Croatia) during summer. These species obviously differ in microhabitat use: L. oxycephala climbs on rocks and stone walls, whereas P. melisellensis is mainly ground-dwelling in vegetation. Since theoretical considerations predict a difference in thermal quality between the species` microhabitats, this system seems to present a good opportunity to test the influence of thermal microhabitat quality on body temperature, thermoregulatory behaviour and evolution of thermal characteristics. Data on thermoregulatory behaviour, body temperatures (T sub(b)) and habitat quality were collected in the field and selected temperatures (T sub(sel)) were estimated in a laboratory thermogradient. Accuracy and effectiveness of thermoregulation were quantified. Thermoregulatory behaviour consisted of timing of activity, selection of places in full sun and near sun-shade transitions, and basking. As predicted, L. oxycephala occupied the microhabitat with the lower thermal quality and had on average a lower T sub(b). However, L. oxycephala also selected lower temperatures in the experimental thermogradient. Thus, if T sub(sel) can be regarded as the thermoregulatory target, both species proved to be accurate and effective thermoregulators. These results corroborate the `labile view` on the evolution of thermal physiology: both L. oxcephala and P. melisellensis appear to be adapted to their respective thermal microhabitat. This is a surprising conclusion, since earlier studies have found the thermal characteristics of Lacertidae to be evolutionarily rigid.

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The first overview of the amphibians and reptiles of Dugi Otok Island, Northern Dalmatia, is presented, based on the published data and new records collected during the last twenty years. A total of 15 species are present on the island, of which only one was not recorded on our surveys. In comparison to other islands of Northern Dalmatia, Dugi Otok is the second most diverse island in terms of herpetofauna, just after Pag Island. The main threats to the amphibians and reptiles on the island are the disappearance and degradation of aquatic habitats, the abandonment and succession of traditional agricultural fields and olive groves and the increasing presence of several invasive species.

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During nine stays on Mount Biokovo (1762 m) / Central Dalmatia (Croatia), and the adjacent parts of the Cetina valley in the years 1979–1990, 16 reptile species were observed. Together with previous data from literature the list now comprises 21 species. New or more detailed data are given, particularly on the following lizard species: Lacerta trilineata, L. viridis, L. mosorensis, L. oxycephala, Podarcis muralis and P. sicula.

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The lizard Podarcis melisellensis is reported to be the prey of the spider Latrodectus mactans from the Island of Krk, Yugoslavia.

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In recent years, great attention has been paid to many Podarcis species for which the observed intra-specific variability often revealed species complexes still characterized by an unresolved relationship. When compared to other species, P. siculus underwent fewer revisions and the number of species hidden within this taxon may have been, therefore, underestimated. However, recent studies based on genetic and morphological data highlighted a marked differentiation of the populations inhabiting the western Pontine Archipelago. In the present work we used published genetic data (three mitochondrial and three nuclear gene fragments) from 25 Podarcis species to provide a multilocus phylogeny of the genus in order to understand the degree of differentiation of the western Pontine populations. In addition, we analyzed new morphometric traits (scale counts) of 151 specimens from the main islands of the Pontine Archipelago. The phylogenetic analysis revealed five principal Podarcis groups with biogeographic consistency. The genetic distinctiveness of the Podarcis populations of the western Pontine Islands is similar or even more ancient than those observed in numerous other pairs of Podarcis sister species. In the light of these evidences we raise the western Pontine lizards to specific rank; thus they should be referred to as Podarcis latastei.

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This paper represents an update of the list of Italian amphibians and reptiles published 15 years ago by Razzetti et al. (2006) and of the checklist published in 1993 by the late Benedetto Lanza. At present, the Italian herpetofauna includes 100 species (41 amphibians and 59 reptiles) and an amphibian taxon of hybrid origin. Seven species and one subspecies are allochthonous and became naturalized within the last century. Since the last published list, a new species has been described (Vipera walser), five taxa have been raised to species rank (Salamandrina perspicillata, Speleomantes sarrabusensis, Zootoca carniolica, Malpolon insignitus and Natrix helvetica) while three taxa have been downgraded to subspecies. All the relevant taxonomic changes based upon new research have been discussed, including tentative revisions and controversial taxa. Nine species reported or listed dubitatively in Lanza’s 1993 list are excluded here.

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Research on the taxonomy of European amphibians and reptiles has increased noticeably over the last few decades, indicating the need for recognition of new species and the cancellation of others. This paper provides a critical review of recent changes and draws up a tentative species list.

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The last species list of the European herpetofauna was published by Speybroeck, Beukema and Crochet (2010). In the meantime, ongoing research led to numerous taxonomic changes, including the discovery of new species-level lineages as well as reclassifications at genus level, requiring significant changes to this list. As of 2019, a new Taxonomic Committee was established as an official entity within the European Herpetological Society, Societas Europaea Herpetologica (SEH). Twelve members from nine European countries reviewed, discussed and voted on recent taxonomic research on a case-by-case basis. Accepted changes led to critical compilation of a new species list, which is hereby presented and discussed. According to our list, 301 species (95 amphibians, 15 chelonians, including six species of sea turtles, and 191 squamates) occur within our expanded geographical definition of Europe. The list includes 14 non-native species (three amphibians, one chelonian, and ten squamates).

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Understanding the microevolutionary processes underlying rapid adaptive evolution and the way selection shapes phenotypic divergence in natural populations remains one of the major goals of evolutionary biology. In a transplant experiment in 1971, five pairs of Italian wall lizards Podarcis siculus from the islet of Pod Kopište were introduced on the nearby islet Pod Mrčaru (Adriatic Sea). Follow up study on these populations has revealed that in only 35 years distinctive changes in ecology and morphology have occurred in the transplanted population, probably linked to dietary change towards omnivory. However, the relative the role of genetic changes vs. Plasticity in this rapid phenotypic evolution remains unknown. To address this question, we will combine estimates of heritability from crossing experiments with genotype-environment-phenotype associations using two experimental and 18 native populations of P. siculus and P. melisellensis. Here, we present the results on genomic differentiation among these 20 populations inhabiting islands along environmental gradient in the region. We genotyped 374 individuals using a genotype-by-sequencing approach. Population genomic analyses allows us to estimate genomewide and loci-specific genomic divergence among populations distributed along the ecological gradient and to quantify the amount of variation in genotype that is explained by geographic and environmental variables.

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The correlation between trophic utilization and morphology was studied for two lizard species (Podarcis melisellensis and P. siculus) from two mainland localities in the eastern Adriatic area; this is the first report of trophic and morphometric data for P. melisellensis from mainland populations. Variance partitioning showed that most of the variation in morphological traits for the analyzed lizards was the result of differences between species, and to a lesser extent between sexes. Locality did not have a strong effect on the variation of morphological traits. Prey weight is the only characteristic of prey that generally exhibits correlations with morphological characteristics rather than prey size. The pattern of correlations is generally weaker for P. melisellensis than for P. siculus. Optimal foraging theory predictions were generally confirmed: P. siculus is more constrained by trophic resource availability, with a premium on larger and heavier prey consumed in the less productive locality (SM), which can be relaxed in more productive regions (KL). P. melisellensis shows such constraints only for males in the less productive region (SM). Females of both species consume heavier prey.

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Podarcis is a genus of lacertid lizards. It contains over twenty species and represents one of the largest radiations of reptiles in Europe. Podarcis lizards show high molecular diversity but are relatively similar morphologically. Here, I describe cranial osteology of P. muralis, P. siculus, P. hispanicus*, P. melisellensis, P. erhardii, P. peloponnesiacus and P. cretensis. P. erhardii and P. cretensis – until recently regarded as conspecific and considered very similar morphologically – differ in several cranial characters. The studied population of P. cretensis, coming from Elafonisos island, shows some apparently heterochronic traits, such as tripartite occipital condyle, low ascending process of the supraoccipital, open parietal fossa and less well pronounced sexual dimorphism. Heterochrony could also play role in the evolution of P. hispanicus*. This is supported by the absence of median crest of the parietal. Morphometric analyses confirm sexual dimorphism in Podarcis lizards – males have relatively longer and higher skull which results in a higher bite force. This allows them to eat harder prey, enhances their chances in combats and helps maintain a secure grip during copulation.

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Elements of the herpetofauna are in the author`s opinion of great importance for the zoogeographical division of the Palaearctic region. It is suggested that this region be divided into the following four subregions: 1/ arctic, 2/ boreal Euro-Siberian, 3/ bo- real Himalayan-Manchurian and 4/ Mediterranean-Central-Asiatic.

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Scientifique, Paris, France 2Life Sciences, The Natural History Museum, London, UK 3Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia 4D.I.I.V. Ltd. for Marine, Freshwater and Subterranean Ecology, Sali, Croatia 5Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA Correspondence Maxime Taverne, UMR 7179, Département Adaptations du Vivant, Muséum National d`Histoire Naturelle, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, France. Email: maxime.taverne@mnhn.fr Funding information National Geographic Committee for Research and Exploration Abstract Access to resources is a dynamic and multicausal process that determines the suc- cess and survival of a population. It is therefore often challenging to disentangle the factors affecting ecological traits like diet. Insular habitats provide a good opportu- nity to study how variation in diet originates, in particular in populations of meso- predators such as lizards. Indeed, high levels of population density associated with low food abundance and low predation are selection pressures typically observed on islands. In the present study, the diet of eighteen insular populations of two closely related species of lacertid lizards (Podarcis sicula and Podarcis melisellensis) was as- sessed. Our results reveal that despite dietary variability among populations, diet taxonomic diversity is not impacted by island area. In contrast, however, diet dispar- ity metrics, based on the variability in the physical (hardness) and behavioral (eva- siveness) properties of ingested food items, are correlated with island size. These findings suggest that an increase in intraspecific competition for access to resources may induce shifts in functional components of the diet. Additionally, the two species differed in the relation between diet disparity and island area suggesting that differ- ent strategies exist to deal with low food abundance in these two species. Finally, sexual dimorphism in diet and head dimensions is not greater on smaller islands, in contrast to our predictions.

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Bite force is a key performance trait in lizards because biting is involved in many ecologically relevant tasks, including foraging, fighting and mating. Several factors have been suggested to impact bite force in lizards, such as head morphology (proximate factors), or diet, intraspecific competition and habitat characteristics (ultimate factors). However, these have been generally investigated separately and mostly at the interspecific level. Here we tested which factors drive variation in bite force at the population level and to what extent. Our study includes 20 populations of two closely related lacertid species, Podarcis melisellensis and Podarcis sicula, which inhabit islands in the Adriatic. We found that lizards with more forceful bites have relatively wider and taller heads, and consume more hard prey and plant material. Island isolation correlates with bite force, probably by driving resource availability. Bite force is only poorly explained by proxies of intraspecific competition. The linear distance from a large island and the proportion of difficult-to-reduce food items consumed are the ultimate factors that explain most of the variation in bite force. Our findings suggest that the way in which morphological variation affects bite force is species-specific, probably reflecting the different selective pressures operating on the two species.

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The grass snake Natrix natrix and the wall lizards Podarcis sicula and P. melisellensis are used as examples to compare the procedure and achievements of the conventional approach to naming subspecies with the use of multivariate morphometries to investigate racial differentiation. The conventional procedure, which has changed little over the last 50 years, fails to take into account the appropriate evolutionary facts or refer to any abstracted levels of divergence necessary for subspecific recognition. Consequently, the patterns of population differentiation are obscured by the recognition of a large number of rather meaningless subspecies. There is a tendency to section clines into artificial categories and arbitrarily delimit subspecies by physiographic features. On the other hand, the use of multivariate morphometries reveals the patterns of population differentiation which can be related to geological events and patterns of differentiation in other species and species groups. The nature of `hybrid` zones and population differentiation enables the relative importance of evolutionary forces such as gene flow, selection and genetic drift to be discussed and provides evidence concerning speciation mechanisms. These techniques also contribute to the discussion regarding the nature of species and provide abstracted and operational criteria for taxonomic decisions. The difference between the results of multivariate analysis and the conventional approach cannot be explained solely on the basis of choice of characters. Some of the advantages and disadvantages of using multivariate morphometries, as opposed to other modern techniques, for investigating racial affinities are discussed.

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The present detailed account of the amphibian and reptile distribution in the North Adriatic Island of Cres (Croatia) is chiefly based on literature data supplemented by new observations kindly provided by a number of correspondents or made by the authors during various trips to the island. Dot maps of the species’ distribution on Cres Island are presented. The overview is completed by information on the herpetofauna of 25 neighboring islands in the Kvarner Bay. Lacerta oxycephala DUMÉRIL & BIBRON, 1839 is reported for the first time from Cres Island.

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the present review of the herpetofauna of the small islands of the Cres–lošinj Archipelago (Croatia) is based on literature data and observations made by the authors in 2011 to 2014. the 16 islets and islands ranging in size between 0.05 km2 (Zabodaski) and 16.92 km2 (unije) are all inhabited by at least one species of wall lizard of the genus Podarcis. the islands Koludarc, unije and veli Osir harbor Podarcis melisellensis fiumana (WeRneR, 1891), while Kormat, male Srakane, mali Plavnik, Oruda, Palacol, unije, vele Srakane, visoki and Zabodaski hold populations of Podarcis siculus campestris (RAFineSque-SChmAltZ, 1810). Both taxa are present on Plavnik, Susak and Zeča. Caretta caretta (linnAeuS, 1758), is reported for the first time from the islands of Oruda and unije, and Hierophis viridiflavus carbonarius (BOnAPARte, 1833) from Susak and unije.

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The authors report on the infestation of lizards with ticks [(Acarina: Ixodidae) in some parts of Yugoslavia. The lizards concerned come from Slovenia, Serbia incl. Vojvodina, Macedonia, Montenegro, but the majority, however, from the Adriatic West—Istrian, Quarner and Dalmatia islands. The tick survival in dry Karst regions, poor with vegetation during the hot summer period has been discussed. It has been established that on the very small Adriatic islands and sea crags the blood source for unadult Haemaphysalis sulcata CANESTRINI et FANZAGO are two lizard species, Lacerta melisellensis BRAUN and Lacerta sicula RAFINESQUE, which are often also the only vertebrate inhabitants of these habitats.

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We explored the ontogenetic dynamics of the morphological and allometric disparity in the cranium shapes of twelve lacertid lizard species. The analysed species (Darevskia praticola, Dinarolacerta mosorensis, Iberolacerta horvathi, Lacerta agilis, L. trilineata, L. viridis, Podarcis erhardii, P. melisellensis, P. muralis, P. sicula, P. taurica and Zootoca vivipara) can be classified into different ecomorphs: terrestrial lizards that inhabit vegetated habitats (habitats with lush or sparse vegetation), saxicolous and shrub-climbing lizards. We observed that there was an overall increase in the morphological disparity (MD) during the ontogeny of the lacertid lizards. The ventral cranium, which is involved in the mechanics of jaw movement and feeding, showed higher levels of MD, an ontogenetic shift in the morphospace planes and more variable allometric patterns than more conserved dorsal crania. With respect to ecology, the allometric trajectories of the shrub-climbing species tended to cluster together, whereas the allometric trajectories of the saxicolous species were highly dispersed. Our results indicate that the ontogenetic patterns of morphological and allometric disparity in the lacertid lizards are modified by ecology and functional constraints and that the identical mechanisms that lead to intraspecific morphological variation also produce morphological divergence at higher taxonomic levels.

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We used Procrustes-based geometric morphometrics to explore morphological variability in dorsal and ventral cranium shape of twelve lacertid lizard species from the Balkan Peninsula (), at the juvenile (neonatal) and at the adult stage (females and males separately). These species differed in phylogenetic relatedness, overall size and habitat preference (terrestrial in overgrown habitats, terrestrial in sparsely vegetated habitats, saxicolous and semiarboreal). General pattern of shape variation appeared to be preserved throughout ontogeny, especially for the dorsal cranium - adult female and male morphospaces corresponded to the neonate morphospace. The inspection of morphospaces showed that the general pattern of shape variability was along the gradient from the smaller to the species with larger body size. Along this gradient, species clustered according to habitat preference. The main difference between neonates and adults was the position of semiarboreal species, which completely separated from the rest of the species at the adult stage. The overall morphological disparity (MD) increased during the course of ontogeny (from neonates to adult females and males). Ventral cranium, with its structures involved in mechanics of jaw movement and feeding, showed greater increase in MD, as well as the shift in the morphospace hyperplanes. On the generic level, Lacerta spp. showed significantly higher MD than Podarcis spp. In contrast to other ecological groups (terrestrial and semiarboreal) saxicolous lizards showed a tendency of decreasing shape disparity during ontogeny. The species from saxicolous group were phylogenetically heterogeneous but morphologically convergent due to the specific habitat constraints, and their distinctive MD pattern could be achieved by different allometric paths. The patterns of shape variation and MD were modified by ecology, functional constraints and different ontogenetic trajectories. Further studies on the ecomorphology, allometric diversity and morphological integration, as well as the reassessment of the problematic lacertid phylogeny are needed in order to shed more light on the complex relationships among morphology, ecology and phylogeny in lacertid lizards.

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Different factors and processes that produce phenotypic variation at the individual, population, or interspecific level can influence or alter the covariance structure among morphological traits. Therefore, studies of the patterns of integration and modularity at multiple levels—static, ontogenetic, and evolutionary, can provide invaluable data on underlying factors and processes that structured morphological variation, directed, or constrained evolutionary changes. Our dataset, consisting of cranium shape data for 14 lizard species from the family Lacertidae, with substantial samples of hatchlings and adults along with their inferred evolutionary relationships, enabled us to assess modularity and morphological integration at all three levels. Five, not mutually exclusive modularity hypotheses of lizard cranium, were tested, and the effects of allometry on intensity and the pattern of integration and modularity were estimated. We used geometric morphometrics to extract symmetric and asymmetric, as well as allometric and nonallometric, components of shape variation. At the static level, firm confirmation of cranial modularity was found for hypotheses which separate anterior and posterior functional compartments of the skull. At the ontogenetic level, two alternative hypotheses (the “anteroposterior” and “neurodermatocranial” hypotheses) of ventral cranial modularity were confirmed. At the evolutionary level, the “neurodermatocranial” hypothesis was confirmed for the ventral cranium, which is in accordance with the pattern observed at the ontogenetic level. The observed pattern of static modularity could be driven by functional demands and can be regarded as adaptive. Ontogenetic modularity and evolutionary modularity show the same developmental origin, indicating conservatism of modularity patterns driven by developmental constraints.

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We used geometric morphometrics to explore the influence of phylogenetic and allometric constraints as well as ecology on variation in cranium shape in five species of monophyletic, morphologically similar Podarcis lizards (Podarcis erhardii, Podarcis melisellensis, Podarcis muralis, Podarcis sicula and Podarcis taurica). These species belong to different clades, they differ in their habitat preferences and can be classified into two distinct morphotypes: saxicolous and terrestrial. We found (i) no phylogenetic signal in cranium shape, (ii) diverging allometric slopes among species, and (iii) a significant effect of habitat on cranium shape. The saxicolous species (P. erhardii and P. muralis) had crania with elongated parietals, elongated cranium bases, shortened anterior parts of the dorsal cranium, reduced chambers of the jaw adductor muscles and larger subocular foramina. These cranial features are adaptations that compensate for a flattened cranium, dwelling on vertical surfaces and seeking refuge in crevices. The crania of the terrestrial species (P. melisellensis, P. sicula and P. taurica) tended to be more elongate and robust, with enlarged chambers of the jaw adductor muscle, reduced skull bases and shortened parietals. Terrestrial species exhibited more variation in cranium shape than saxicolous species. Our study suggests that shape variation in Podarcis sp. lizards is largely influenced by ecology, which likely affects species-specific patterns of static allometry.

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Digit length ratio (primarily 2D:4D) has become increasingly popular as a possible biomarker of intrauterine steroid exposure in the human medical, social and psychological literature. Human males tend to have lower digit ratios than females, and individuals with low ratios tend to excel in physical performance, especially in endurance-related sports. Because early limb development is evolutionarily conservative, it has been speculated that these trends should also be visible in other tetrapod vertebrates. However, studies on non-human vertebrates are scant, and their results suggest that sexual dimorphism in digit ratios and the associations with physical performance are much more intricate and taxon-specific than presumed. In this study, we compared digit ratios of two Podarcis lizards among sexes, colour morphs and species. We also tested for associations with three performance characteristics that are of ecological relevance. Both species examined exhibit male-larger sexual dimorphism in digit ratio. 2D:4D, 3D:4D and 2D:3D ratios are tightly correlated within the manus and the pes, but less so between manus and pes. In the colour polymorphic species P. melisellensis, the yellow morph exhibits higher dimorphism than the orange and white morphs. Digit ratios did not correlate with individual performance for sprint speed or endurance, but within males of P. melisellensis, individuals with higher digit ratios correlated positively with head size and bite force. We conclude that digit ratios in lizards deserve attention, because they exhibit sexual dimorphism and correlate with ecologically relevant morphological and performance variables. As lizard species differ widely in mating systems, reproductive mode, habitat use and locomotor behaviour, they seem excellent model animals for studying patterns in digit length ratios.

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1. Ecological interactions that involve aggressive confrontations between animals are important in shaping the evolution of morphology, behaviour and life history. However, as such confronta- tions are rarely witnessed, direct quantification of the intensity of these processes in natural pop- ulations is notoriously difficult. While the utilization of the frequency of non-lethal injuries is fraught with difficulties, it may provide information concerning different types of interaction, such as predation, intraspecific aggression and interspecific interference competition. 2. In this paper, we report on an exceptionally large difference in toe loss incidence between two populations of Podarcis sicula lizards living on small, neighbouring islands in the Adriatic Sea. We caught 900 lizards and recorded the number and location of missing toes. Subsequently, we investigated five non-mutually exclusive hypotheses concerning differences in bite force capacity, bone strength, predation intensity, average age and intraspecific aggression that may provide proximate explanations for the observed differences in injury frequencies. 3. Bite force differences differed considerably between the populations, but bone strength was found to be stronger in the populations with a higher frequency of natural scars. Predation pres- sure clearly differed between the populations, but we found higher injury rates under predation relaxation. 4. Our results indicate that density and consequently an increased intraspecific competition is the most likely explanation for the observed high frequencies of injuries. We suggest that the inten- sity of toe amputation between lizard populations may be a useable indirect indication for the intensity of intraspecific competition. 5. This study shows how a combination of morphological, physiological, behavioural and eco- logical measurements can be used to test assumptions implicit to alternative explanations of an observed phenomenon. Such tests can reveal how likely each of these explanations is, even if the processes leading to the phenomenon are difficult to observe directly.

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In this paper we examine the distribution of amphibians and reptiles over the islands of the newly founded Lastovo Archipelago Nature Park (Lastovsko oto~je), Croatia. On several field trips between 1996 and 2008, we encountered five species of lizards (Podarcis sicula, P. melisellensis, Dalmatolacerta oxycephala, Hemidactylus turcicus and Pseudopus apodus), one species of snake (Dolichophis caspius), one species of sea turtle (Caretta caretta) and one species of toad (Bufo viridis). We confirm literature data on the presence of some of these species on different islands of the archipelago, and add distributional records for several other islands and islets. Logistic regression analyses show that the variables predicting presence/absence from different islands vary among species. Within species, populations from different islands noticeably vary in body size and shape, scalation, dorsal and ventral coloration, behaviour and density. This observation adds to the value of the study area as a »natural laboratory« for future research into the ecology and evolution of island populations. Although most species seem to be doing well presently, we list a number of possible hazards and concerns.

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Evolutionary changes in foraging style are often believed to require concurrent changes in a complex suite of morphological, physiological, behavioural and life-history traits. In lizards, species from families with a predominantly sit-and-wait foraging style tend to be more stocky and robust, with larger heads and mouths than species belonging to actively foraging families. Here, we test whether morphology and foraging behaviour show similar patterns of association within the family Lacertidae. We also examine the association of bite force abilities with morphology and foraging behaviour. Lacertid lizards exhibit considerable interspecific variation in foraging indices, and we found some evidence for a covariation between foraging style and body shape. However, the observed relationships are not always in line with the predictions. Also, the significance of the relationships varies with the evolutionary model used. Our results challenge the idea that foraging style is evolutionarily conservative and invariably associated with particular morphologies. It appears that the flexibility of foraging mode and its morphological correlates varies among lizard taxa.

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Apart from certain species of the African clade, the lizard family Lacertidae has generally been described as consisting of active foragers. We made quantitative field observations of 14 species of lacertid lizards, mainly belonging to the more basal Eurasian clade. Our data show that sit-and-wait foraging is much more widespread in Lacertidae than previously alleged. We also investigated the influence of weather and times of day on foraging activity levels and conclude that for comparative purposes observations should be restricted to circumstances that are optimal for activity. We did not find sex differences in foraging behavior.

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Foraging strategy is often considered to play a central role in moulding diverse aspects of an animal`s general biology. Active foragers should have greater locomotor endurance, allowing high movement activity rates, while sit-and-waiting foragers may be better adapted to sprinting, allowing catching prey by a quick attack from an ambush site, and going with specific predator escape tactics. In this study we investigate these predicted patterns in a set of lacertid lizard species. There is considerable variation in foraging activity within Lacertidae, which allows the close investigation of the co-evolution of the traits considered. We found a tendency of positive correlation of foraging measures (PTM, percentage of time moving; MPM, number of movements per minute) with laboratory measured endurance capacity. However, the relationship of foraging measures with maximal sprint speed remains less clear. MPM correlates negatively with maximal sprint speed, but PTM does not. When sprint speed was corrected for body size, no correlations were found at all.

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1. Relationships between morphology, bite force capacity, prey handling efficiency and trophic niche were explored in two sympatric species of lacertid lizards, Podarcis melisellensis (Braun 1877) and Lacerta oxycephala Duméril & Bibron 1839. 2. Head shape showed little variation, but head size (absolute and relative to snoutvent length, SVL) differed between species and sexes. Males have larger heads than females, both absolute and relative to their SVL. In absolute terms, male P. melisellensis have larger heads than male L. oxycephala, but the reverse case was true for the females. Relative to SVL, L. oxycephala have larger heads than P. melisellensis. 3. Bite force capacity was estimated by having the lizards bite on two metal plates, connected to a piezoelectric force transducer. Differences in maximal bite force between species and sexes paralleled differences in absolute head size. Differences in body size and head size explain the higher bite force of males (compared with females), but not the higher bite force of P. melisellensis (compared with L. oxycephala). Among individual lizards, bite force correlated with body size and head size. 4. Prey handling efficiency, estimated by the time and number of bites needed to subdue a cricket in experimental conditions, also showed intersexual and interspecific variation. This variation corresponded to the differences in maximal bite capacity, suggesting that bite force is a determining factor in prey handling. Among individual lizards, both estimates of handling efficiency correlated with maximal bite force capacity. 5. Faecal pellet analyses suggested that in field conditions, males of both sexes select larger and harder prey than females. There was no difference between the species. The proportion of hard-bodied and large-sized prey items found in a lizard`s faeces correlated positively with its bite force capacity. 6. It is concluded that differences in head and body size, through their effect on bite force capacity, may affect prey selection, either directly, or via handling efficiency.

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CHRISTMAS CHILOREN. PART 2 This arricle is a sequel ro a recenr arricle of rhe aurhor (van WESTBROEK, 200I}, in which rhe reproduceion of some smal! species of European lizards (Podarcis melisellemis, Lncerttt oxycep/;n/n en Alg;lfoides nigropunctntis) is discussed. In rhis parr special arrenrion is given ro rhe incubarion of rhe eggs and rhe rearing of rhe young animals. Differenr subsrrares can be used for rhe incubarion of rhe eggs, bur rhe aurhor prefers porring composr for succulenrs. This has a good airy srrucrure and has good moisr-regularing qualiries. W hen using nor roo high incubarion-remperarures, for insrance 24,5°C, rhe harchlings are somewhar larger, wirh a bigger porrion offemalcs, compared ro when using higher incubarion-remperarures. The juveniles are reared in smal! conrainers, dimensions 45x25x25 cm (lxwxh), wirhour a lid and wirh a smal! spot- light (incandescenr 40 W or halogen 50 W wirhour rhe glass UV-prorecrion). Using plastic terrariums wirhout seams keeps rhe crickers inside. Ar firsr rhe juveniles are fed smal! crickers, unril rhey reach a lengrh ar which rhey can ear buffalo-worms. C rickers and buffi1lo-worms can be fed ground per- food for dogs. In rhe drinking-warer Calcium Iae- tare is dissolved, one reaspoon in a beer-glass. Warer-soluble viramins are added in a concenrra- rion of I mi per lirre water. The vitamin-supple- ment comains 50.000 I.E. vitamin A and I0.000 I.E. vitamin 03 per mi. Ir is viral rhar rhe li7..ards as wel! as rhe insecrs are fed properly and rhar rhe drinking-warer is rene- wed every day. lf you are a bir slack wirh rhis, the resulrs of rearing rhe young lizards wil! decline.

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In this paper we present distributional data for reptiles from different localities in the Western Balkans. During an 11 year period (2002-2012) we collected new data in the frame of spring student research camps organized by the Biology Students’ Society (DŠB). Surveys were conducted by members of the herpetological groups that were mostly biology students. Surveys were located on five islands Dugi otok, Brač, Korčula, Mljet, and Pag, one peninsula Pelješac (Croatia), in the continental area around Kamenovo and Lake Skadar (Montenegro), Dojran Lake (Macedonia), at lower Neretva Delta (Croatia) and around Niš (Serbia). Altogether 34 different reptile species were recorded in the surveys. The species lists comprised of 7-22 different species per single locality. The highest reptile biodiversity was recorded around Dojran Lake in Macedonia.

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Aggression as a form of competitive behavior is a common occurrence that greatly affects the relationship between individuals, populations and/or species. It has also been noted in the relationship between the species Podarcis sicula (coastal lizard) and Podarcis melisellensis (karst lizard) along the Adriatic coast, where more aggressive P. sicula actively suppresses P. melisellensis reducing its living area. It is known that aggression occurs as a result of the action of certain neurotransmitters in the brain - dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine. The aim of this study was to analyze the expression of MAO (monoamine oxidase) and COMT (catechol-O-methyltransferase) genes that degrade dopamine therefore affecting dopamine levels in the brain of individuals of species P. sicula and P. melisellensis. Field sampling of individuals at three locations (Pag, Sinj, Knin) was performed, their sacrifice and storage of brain tissue from which RNA was isolated, species specific primers designed and reverse transcription (RT-PCR) and quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR) performed. No difference in the relative expression of MAO and COMT genes was found between the studied species.