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The aimof this study was to determine the spatial use of the main biophysical elements present in the agro-silvo-pastoral system (trees and shrubs, fallen trunks and branches, rocky outcrops and pilesof stones/walls) by three lizard speciess: Acanthodactylus erythrurus, Podarcis virescensand Psammodromus algirus. However, A. erythruruswas not found in the ten plots studied. For the remaining two species, the hypothesis tests showed that there are differences in the number of individuals when comparing the fiveplots with grazing with the five plots without grazing,within the montado landscape. Where there are rocky outcrops, P. virescens predominates (especially in grazing areas), while Ps. algirusmainly occurs in areas without grazing. At the same time, there are also differences in the elements used as a perch and as a refuge between the two lizards. This type of work helps the creation of management plans by farmers and owners / decision makers, towardsan efficient conservation of reptiles.

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Alto de São Bento is a granite hill near the city of Évora, with floristic, geological and landscape interest, having been declared a núcleo museológico (NMASB). In this study, the local herpetofaunistic diversity was evaluated, the results of which demonstrated the presence of 12 species of amphibians and 11 species of reptiles in the area. Salamandra salamandra and natterjack toad Epidalea calamita predominate in the sampled amphibians; the most common reptiles are the Psammodromus algirus and the gecko Tarentola mauritanica. Such a contribution of diversity seems regionally important, however the NMASB model does not seem efficient in ist conservation, so a redesign into an ecomuseum is suggested.

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O montado, sistema agro-silvo-pastoril de extrema importância para várias espécies de répteis, foi moldado pela ação humana desde tempos ancestrais e a manutenção das suas características seminaturais depende diretamente da continuação da gestão tradicional. A presente investigação teve como principal objetivo a determinação do impacto da gestão do montado, principalmente do pastoreio, no uso do habitat pelas lagartixas Psammodromus algirus, Psammodromus occidentalis e Podarcis virescens. Os resultados atingidos, por meio da realização de testes de hipóteses, apontam para a ausência de impacto dos vários níveis de intensidade de pastoreio no número de indivíduos encontrado em cada cerca, embora, aparentemente, haja uma alteração do comportamento e uso do micro-habitat pelas lagartixas quando expostas às diferentes intensidades. Estas lagartixas mostraram selecionar micro-habitats com uma estrutura simples, sendo que as diferenças entre as espécies se encontram no uso que estas fazem dos elementos que o constituem; Abstract: Habitat Use by Lizards in Agrosilvopastoral Systems of Montado The montado is an extremely important agrosilvopastoral system to several species of reptiles. It has been moulded by the human activity since the primordial times and its characteristics rely directly on the continuity of the traditional ways of management. The present research`s objective has been the measure of the impact inflicted by the management applied on the montado upon the use of the habitat by the species of lizards Psammodromus algirus, Psammodromus occidentalis and Podarcis virescens. The results suggests that there is no impact on the population of the species studied due to the intensity of the grazing, although there has been noticed a change in the behaviour and usage of the micro-habitat by them, when exposed to the different intensity levels. The lizards seem to prefer simple structured micro-habitats being the main difference between the species in the usage that they give to its physical elements.

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Oxygen consumption levels and metabolic rate temperature curves of various lizard species from three different climatic regions were examined in relation to ambient temperature. The species used in this research were as follows: Anguis fragilis, Lacerta vivipara, Lacerta agilis (cool temperate species); Blanus cinereus, Podarcis hispanica, Podarcis lilfordi brauni, Podarcis lilfordi lilfordi, Podarcis muralis, Psammodromus algirus, Tarentola mauritanica (warm temperate species); Chalcides ocellatus, Acanthodactylus opheodurus, Acanthodactylus schmidti (desert species). A double chamber volumetric closed system was used to measure the resting oxygen consumption of the lizards. Acute oxygen consumption determinations were made, that is the lizards were not allowed to acclimate to the test temperatures. Interspecific differences in levels of resting oxygen consumption and in the characteristics of the metabolic rate temperature curves were examined in relation to methods of thermoregulation and in relation to the ecology of the respective species. Evidence for `temperature dependent shifts` and `low thermal dependence` was found in the metabolic rate temperature curves of some species. A diminishing Q10 at or below the voluntary body temperatures suggests some degree of metabolic homeostatsis and energy conservation.

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En Castilla y León, en 2021, la Junta de Castilla y León determina el comienzo del proyecto `Estudio para el seguimiento del estado de conservación de los anfibios y reptiles de Castilla y León`. Se realizó el muestreo dirigido sobre 18 cuadriculas UTM 10x10 km (2 por provincia) seleccionadas sobre hábitats favorables de las 13 ZEC propuestas en el Plan de Monitorización del Estado de Conservación de la Biodiversidad; de los Espacios Protegidos de la Red Natura 2000 y de los Espacios Naturales Protegidos de Castilla y León. La metodología es tomada del programa SARE (Seguimiento de los Anfibios y Reptiles Españoles). Además, dentro de los objetivos, se llevó a cabo la revisión bibliográfica y el muestreo específico para aumentar el conocimiento de tres especies de anfibios de interés comunitario: R. dalmatina, C. lusitanica e I. alpestris. Por un lado, la sequia del año 2022 ha producido malos resultados en los muestreos de anfibios con lo que habría que repetir el esfuerzo realizado sobre las especies prioritarias y por otro se han obtenido abundancias más bajas que el año anterior. En anfibios la especie que alcanzó mayor densidad en la mayoría de las estaciones donde estaba presente resultó ser E. calamita, seguido de L. boscai y P. perezi,. La media de la densidad máxima de anfibios ya metamorfoseados es mayor para los anuros que para los urodelos. La densidad larvaria máxima no varió significativamente por regiones biogeográficas, aunque los anuros fueron ligeramente más abundantes en la región mediterránea que en la atlántica. Las densidades larvarias variaron entre especies, siendo especialmente abundantes en A. obstetricans, P. cultripes, R. parvipalmata y T. pygmeus. Las especies de reptiles más abundantes durante los dos años de muestreo fueron: M. leprosa, I. cyreni, I. martinezricai, E. orbicularis, P. algirus, I. monticola y P. muralis. La densidad máxima varió significativamente entre grupos taxonómicos, con una densidad alta en quelonios, media en saurios, y muy pequeña en ofidios. Para calcular tendencias poblacionales se requieren tres años de seguimiento, hasta que no termine el 2023, no podemos valorar una posible evolución. No obstante hemos obtenido conclusiones metodológicas. Por ejemplo la inclusión de estaciones de muestreo especialmente favorables en zonas limítrofes a las cuadrículas UTM 10x10 ha sido acertada y, de hecho, probablemente hubiera sido todavía más acertado elegir las estaciones de muestreo sin atender a los límites de las cuadriculas. Los resultados corroboran que el área de estudio presenta poblaciones abundantes de anfibios y reptiles, aunque no exentas de problemas y muy variables en importancia según la zona geográfica, destacando la riqueza de las poblaciones de quelonios. También, y como cabría esperar, la biología particular de ofidios y quelonios aconseja la realización de censos específicos para estos grupos con objeto de obtener medidas más realistas de sus abundancias.

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The evolutionary role of fire in animals has been poorly explored. Reptiles use sensory cues, such as smell (chemoreception), to de tect threats and flee. In Mediterranean ecosystems, fire is a threat faced by reptiles. We hypothesized that the Mediterranean lizard Psammodromus algirus recognizes the threat of fire by detecting the smoke, which triggers a behavioral response that enhances sur vival in fire-prone ecosystems. We predicted that lizards from fire-prone ecosystems will be more sensitive to fire stimulus than those from ecosystems that rarely burn. We conducted a terrarium experiment in which lizards from habitats with contrasted fire regimes (fire-prone vs. non-fire-prone) were exposed to smoke versus control (false smoke) treatment. We found that, in populations from fire prone habitats, more lizards reacted to smoke, and their behavioral response was more intense than in lizard populations from non fire-prone habitats. Our results suggest that an enhanced response to smoke may be adaptive in lizards from fire-prone ecosystems as it increases the chance for survival. We provide evidence that fire is likely an evolutionary driver shaping behavioral traits in lizard populations exposed to frequent wildfires. Understanding ecological and evolutionary processes shaping animal populations is rele vant for species conservation in a changing fire regime world.

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Wildfires are a natural disturbance in many ecosystems. However, their effect on biotic interactions has been poorly studied. Fire consumes the vegetation and the litter layer where many parasites spend part of their life cycles. We hypothesize that wildfires reduce habitat availability for parasites with consequent potential benefits for hosts. We tested this for the lizard Psammodromus algirus and its ectoparasites in a Mediterranean ecosystem. We predicted that lizards in recently burned areas would have lower parasite load (cleaning effect) than those in unburned areas and that this phenomenon implies that lizards spending their entire lives in postfire conditions experience a lower level of parasitism than those living in unburned areas. We compared the ectoparasite load of lizards between eight paired burned/unburned sites, including recent (less than 1 year postfire) and older fires (2–4 years). We found that lizards` ectoparasites prevalence was drastically reduced in recently burned areas. Likewise, lizards in older burned areas showed less evidence of past parasitic infections. Fire disrupted the host–parasite interaction, providing the opportunity for lizards to avoid the negative effects of ectoparasites. Our results suggest that wildfires probably fulfil a role in controlling vector-borne diseases and pathogens, and highlight ecological effects of wildfires that have been overlooked.

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Studying the causes of parasite geographic distribution is relevant to understand ecological and evolutionary processes that affect host populations as well as for species conservation. Temperature is one of the most important environmental variables affecting parasite distribution, as raising temperatures positively affect development, reproduction, and rate of transmission of both endo- and ectoparasites. In this context, it is generally accepted that, in mountains, parasite abundance decreases with elevation. However, empirical evidence on this topic is limited. In the present study, we analysed the elevational variation of haemoparasites and ectoparasites of a lizard, Psammodromus algirus, along a 2200-m elevational gradient in Sierra Nevada (SE Spain). As predicted, ectoparasite (mites, ticks, mosquitoes, and sandflies) abundance decreased with elevation. However, haemoparasite prevalence and intensity in the lizard augmented with altitude, showing a pattern contrary to their vectors (mites). We suggest that tolerance to haemoparasites may increase with elevation as a consequence of lizards at high altitudes taking advantage of increased body condition and food availability, and reduced oxidative stress. Moreover, lizards could have been selected for higher resistance against haemoparasites at lowlands (where higher rates of replication are expected), thus reducing haemoparasite prevalence and load. Our findings imply that, in a scenario of climate warming, populations of lizards at high elevation may face increased abundance of ectoparasites, with accompanied strong negative effects.

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Natural vegetation in Europe appears nowadays deeply modified by human activities. In the Guadarrama Mountains (Central Spain), ancient reforestations with Scots pines, Pinus sylvestris, replaced original deciduous pyrenean oak, Quercus pyrenaica, forests (since the Roman period). However, the effect of reforestations on fauna remains little known, especially in reptiles. We described patterns of microhabitat selection in several species of Lacertid lizards, and analyzed whether the modification of the original vegetation affected distribution and population densities of lizards. The species of lacertid lizards found in oak forests (Psammodromus algirus, Lacerta lepida and Podarcis hispanica) were different to those of in pine plantations (Podarcis muralis and Podarcis hispanica). Lizards did not use habitat at random and this could explain differences in species found in both forests, which differed in some microhabitat structure characteristics. Most lizards selected microhabitats with rocky outcrops, with low cover of trees, and close to refuges. These microhabitat preferences also explained abundance of lizards in transects. From the perspective of conservation and management of lizards, pine plantations seem not to contribute too much to the diversity of lizard species because species typical from oak forests were lost. This study has implications for pine reforestation management, because allowing the recolonization by understory oaks, and leaving some open areas, without trees but with dense shrubs and rocks inside reforestations would contributed to maintain lizard populations.

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Deforestation may increase predation risk for prey because it may make prey more conspicuous and limit the number of refuges suitable to avoid predators. Therefore, prey may need to increase the magnitude of escape responses. However, excessive antipredatory effort might lead to a loss of body mass and a decrease in defense against parasites, with important consequences for short- and long-term fitness. We analyzed whether Psammodromus algirus (L., 1758) lizards that inhabit patches with different levels of deterioration of the vegetation within the same oak forest differed in relative abundance numbers, microhabitat use, antipredatory strategies, and health state. Results showed lizards selected similar microhabitats regardless of the level of deterioration of the vegetation and relative abundance of lizards was similar in both areas. However, habitat deterioration seemed to increase predation risk, at least for females, because they were detected at longer distances in deteriorated areas. Females seemed to adjust their antipredatory behavior accordingly to high risk of predation by increasing approach distances allowed to predators. The costs associated with frequent antipredatory displays might explain why females in deteriorated habitats had lower body condition and greater blood parasite loads than females in natural areas. This loss of body condition and increased parasitemia might have deleterious consequences for female fitness and therefore affect the maintenance of lizard populations in the long-term.

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We present the results of several field campaigns, realized from June 2007 to September 2008, and from March 2012 to May 2014 in different Algerian localities (Cap Djinet, Tigzirt, Boukhalfa, Ouadias, El Misser, Darna and Talaguilef). During this field work we have collected 488 specimens belonging to 35 species: 328 small mammals (11 species), 53 amphibians (6 species), 106 squamates (17 species) and one chelonian. The trapping success was highly variable (0.1 to 13.34 %). Genetic and morphometric analyses in progress will improve our knowledge of the evolutionary history of these small vertebrates at population and community scales.

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In contrast to the view of a diffuse monoaminergic innervation of the telencephalon, studies on the monoaminergic innervation in certain mammalian isocortical regions have shown a high degree of regional and laminar specificy. The present study was designed to examine the distribution patterns of dopamine, noradrenaline and serotonin in a telencephalic structure, the anterior dorsal ventricular ridge, of the sand lizard Psammodromus algirus (Lacertidae) using specific antibodies against each monoamine. The anterior dorsal ventricular ridge receives an abundant monoaminergic innervation compared to that of cortical telencephalic regions. The distribution of the different monoamines presented zonal and regional patterns throughout the ridge. The cell cluster zone was profusely innervated by catecholamines, whereas no serotoninergic fibers innervated the cell bodies in the cluster zone. On the other hand, the periventricular zone was heavily innervated by serotonin, but catecholaminergic fibers were almost lacking. With regard to regional patterns, dopamine exhibited major differences in the mediolateral axis of the anterior dorsal ventricular ridge: dopaminergic innervation was densest in the lateral region, which in other reptiles is described as a target of visual thalamic projections. Whereas the zonal pattern of the monoaminergic innervation of the anterior dorsal ventricular ridge seems to be a constant feature in the reptiles studies to date, the regional pattern varies among reptilian groups, especially taking into account the density of monoaminergic innervation.

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We have studied the intrinsic connections of the anterior dorsal ventricular ridge (ADVR) in the lacertid lizard Psammodromus algirus by means of retrograde transport of horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and fluorescent labeling with the lipophilic carbocyanine dye DiI. We injected HRP into different regions in the ADVR arrayed in a medial-to-lateral sequence, with each consisting of three distinct superficial-to-deep zones. When HRP was injected into a given region, many labeled neurons (always located ipsilateral to the injection site) were found at all mediolateral regions of ADVR in locations rostrally distant from the injection site. DiI crystals were applied on different superficial-to-deep zones within each region. Two patterns could be recognized: DiI crystals applied on the periventricular (most superficial) zone resulted in a labeling of cells widely distributed throughout the ADVR independently of the mediolateral region of the application site, whereas DiI crystals applied on deeper zones resulted in a staining of cells mostly restricted to a narrow radial area. Results from both types of labeling confirm that the ADVR has a prominent radial component in its intrinsic organization, but they also demonstrate that some areas of the ADVR receive projections from distant, rostrally located neurons in every ipsilateral region of the ridge itself, which establishes a clear non-radial component. This organization may have important functional properties with regard to a putative integration of different sensory modalities conveyed by thalamic afferent fibers to the ADVR. Last, we analyzed some evolutionary implications of our results.

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The last catalogue of the Reptile collection of the Museu Bocage dates back to 1972. The collections were lost in a fire 25 years ago, so it was necessary to analyse the effort of various donors, who offered the Museum a new collection. The evaluation of the sampling effort is important to gather information (on quantity and origin) and the various samples of the species of lacertid lizards present in the Museum and enables an operational and practical visual imaged of that information. The obtained results prove that the study of the sampling effort using ordinary kriging method is robust and accurate on identifying gaps (under or no sampled areas) and a helpful tool to fulfil them. Although beginning to the representative of the Portuguese fauna, the lacertid collection of the Museu Bocage needs major improvements given that it still does not illustrate the actual distribution of lacertid lizards in Portugal. In order to stand for modern standards, when complementing the existing collection we must take into account not only the information provided by the analysis but also conservationist concerns (not killing animals) and the establishment of co-partnerships with congener institutions as well. Nowadays Museums have the duty, more than ever, to keep their collections well housed, cared for and accessible to the scientific community.

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The diet of both reptiles was studied in the park of the National Agronomic Institute in Alger city. Faeces of the captured animals were analysed in order to evaluate relative abundance of preys, standardised diversity and diet overlaps for both species. They both preyed on a large diversity of small invertebrates and showed overlapping diets. In spite of this opportunistic behaviour, both predator species seem to split the feeding resources of their environment through spatial and temporal segregation.

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The author describes a herpetological trip to Portugal organized by a travelling agency specialized in ecological trips. The group consisted ofeighteen people and was especially interested in reptiles and amphibians, though most of the participants were bird-watchers and nature-lovers too. Day by day the author describes the various reptiles and amphibians that were seen. A table is added, in which the num- bers represent the day the respective animals were spotted. The regions that were visited were: Sao Bras {day I), Guadiana river {day 2), Parque Natural da Ria Formosa (day 3), Huelva and Coto de Dofiana in Spain {day 4), Lagoa and the Monchique (day 5), the rocky coast of Carrapateira, Cabo de Sao Vicente (day 6), Almarjao, close to Sao Bras (day 7). Three species of newts and salamanders were seen, eight species of frogs and toads, two species of turt- les, ten species of lizards and five species of snakes. A list was made of the insects, the birds (123 spe- cies) and plants that were seen. The trip was very successful, with regard to the inte- rest of the group

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In this article we provide new data of amphibians and reptiles distribution in Teruel province: 81 unpublished records. These records constitute the first observation for a given herpetological specie in a 10 km x 10 UTM square. As a result of a bibliographical review until January 2004, the species cited in Teruel province are 30: 8 species of amphibians and 22 of reptiles, one of these reptiles has been introduced, Trachemys scripta.

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Algyroides fitzingeri, Algyroides marchi, Algyroides moreoticus, Algyroides nigropunctatus, Lacerta agilis, Lacerta lepida, Lacerta princeps, Lacerta schreiberi, Lacerta strigata, Lacerta trilineata, Lacerta viridis, Lacerta andreanszkyi, Lacerta armeniaca, Lacerta bedriagae, Lacerta brandtii, Lacerta cappadocica, Lacerta caucasica, Lacerta chlorogaster, Lacerta cyanura, Lacerta danfordi, Lacerta derjugini, Lacerta dugesii, Lacerta fraasii, Lacerta graeca, Lacerta horvathi, Lacerta jayakari, Lacerta laevis, Lacerta monticola, Lacerta mosorensis, Lacerta oxycephala, Lacerta parva, Lacerta perspicillata, Lacerta praticola, Lacerta rudis, Lacerta saxicola, Lacerta vivipara, Gallotia atlantica, Gallotia galloti, Gallotia simonyi, Podarcis erhardii, Podarcis filfolensis, Podarcis hispanica, Podarcis lilfordi, Podarcis melisellensis, Podarcis milensis, Podarcis muralis, Podarcis peloponnesiaca, Podarcis pityusensis, Podarcis sicula, Podarcis taurica, Podarcis tiliguerta, Podarcis wagleriana, Psammodromus algirus, Psammodromus blanci, Psammodromus hispanicus, Psammodromus microdactylus.

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The ability to shed (autotomize) all or part of the tail, usually in response to predator attack, and often to subsequently regenerate it is widespread in lizards and amphisbaenians and also occurs in a few snakes and in the tuatara. Most species possess a sophisticated intravertebral autotomy mechanism which seems to be primitive in the Squamata. This appears to have been independently lost in members of many groups, but some agamids and snakes have regained the ability to shed their tails by a simpler intervertebral means and a -number of agamids have also redeveloped tail regeneration as well. Breakable tails are used to evade capture in two main ways: by enabling reptiles to break away from predators that have grasped them by the tail and by providing a distraction which deflects the attention of the attacker away from the vulnerable head and body. It is argued that loss of caudal autotomy has occurred when the costs of tail shedding outweigh its benefits. Likely costs include the expense of regrowing the tail and the loss of a variety of possible tail functions that may cause partial incapacitation, at least until the tail regenerates. Benefits of autotomy are liable to be low if predation is rare, if the animal is able to protect itself effectively in other ways, if it is too slow to evade further pursuit after the tail is shed, or if the tail is small or unpalatable and consequently not likely to distract a predator. Benefit variation may well be greater than cost variation and therefore more important in initiating the loss of autotomy mechanisms. Many taxa that do not shed the tail appear to conform to the above interpretation, but in some cases, such as the Platynota, Agamidae and Chamaeleonidae, lack of intravertebral autotomy may reflect the history of these groups rather than being a direct result of present ecological pressures. The distribution of intervertebral autotomy in the Agamidae suggests that it may have evolved only in rather special circumstances where tail fragility is advantageous even in the absence of the ability to regenerate. Restriction ot autotomy planes to the tail-base, so that the whole organ is lost, a condition found in a number of relatively slow-moving geckoes, is interpreted as a means of ensuring that enough of the tail is shed to distract a predator from further pursuit. The stimulus necessary to induce autotomy can vary rapidly in individual lizards and at least some of these changes probably maximize the effectiveness of the tail-shedding mechanism. Differences in the readiness with which all or part of the tail is shed exist between species and are likely to reflect the balance of costs and benefits in particular cases. Variations in incidence of broken tails between species and populations may be due to such differences in fragility but many other factors may play a part, including the age structure of samples, incidence of unsuccessful attacks by predators and ability to evade predators after autotomy. There is a clear tendency for climbing lizards, especially those living on rock surfaces, to have higher incidences of broken tails than ground-dwelling species, perhaps because the tail is usually less important in locomotion in the first group. Many lizards possess conspicuously coloured tails and tail movements that seem likely to help distract attention from the head and body. Conspicuous tail colouring is more frequent and often better developed in young animals, which tend to be more vulnerable than adults, and in active species from open habitats where crypsis may not always be very effective. Conspicuous tails usually have contrasting light and dark areas in nocturnal forms but are often a single bright colour in diurnal ones, probably reflecting the visual capacities of their respective predators. The predominance of blue tails in day-active species may be because this colour is striking close to but not very arresting at a distance, so it may not attract predators from far away while still drawing their attention at close quarters.

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The basic anatomy of the lacertid hemipenis (intromittent organ) and methods for its investigation are described. In many members of the Lacertidae, the hemipenis has a structure quite unlike that of other squamate reptiles: the distal lobes of the retracted organ are complexly folded and there is a well-defined supporting structure of dense connective tissue, the armature. This incorporates blood sinuses and has an intramuscular portion embedded in the m. retractor penis magnus and two club-shaped bodies, the clavulae, that support the lobes in the erect organ. Unarmatured hemipenes occur in some lacertids and, like those of other squamates, possess sac-like lobes in the retracted state, but they are singular in having the lobes invested by the m. retractor penis magnus. It is argued that many of these apparently primitive hemipenes are in fact secondary derivatives of the armatured type. There is considerable inter-specific variation in hemipenial structure which is described systematically. In some cases this involves differences in size, asymmetry and simplification, which may arise as physical isolating mechanisms and is useful in distinguishing otherwise very similar species, particularly in the genus Mesalina (p. 1253). Other shared derived hemipenial features provide useful information about relationships between species and higher taxa and a summary of the hypotheses that they support is given (p. 1254).

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Twenty-four species of lacertid lizards were examined at 31 sites in western Yogoslavia, Greece and Iberia. Comparative observations were made on over 4500 individual lizards, noting such features as times of activitiy, hunting methods, diet, micro- and macrohabitat, refuges used and body temperature. These data are used as a basis for assessing resource partition in related sympatric species, for find out whether different systematic groups have characteristic types of niche, and for comparing cumminity structures in the peninsulas of southern Europa. Acanthodactylus erythrurus, Algyroides marchi, Algyroides moreoticus, Algyroides nigropunctatus, Lacerta agilis, Lacerta graeca, Lacerta horvathi, Lacerta lepida, Lacerta monticola, Lacerta oxycephala, Lacerta mosorensis, Lacerta schreiberi, Lacerta trilineata, Lacerta viridis, Lacerta vivipara, Podarcis bocagei, Podarcis erhardii, Podarcis hispanica, Podarcis melisellensis, Podarcis milensis, Podarcis muralis, Podarcis peloponnesiaca, Podarcis sicula, Podarcis taurica, Psammodromus algirus, Psammodromus hispanicus.

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Differences in surface structure (ober- hautchen) of body scales of lacertid lizards involve cell size, shape and surface profile, presence or absence of fine pitting, form of cell margins, and the occurrence of longitudinal ridges and pustular projections. Phylogenetic information indicates that the primitive pattern involved narrow strap-shaped cells, with low posteriorly overlapping edges and relatively smooth surfaces. Deviations from this condition produce a more sculptured surface and have developed many times, although subsequent overt reversals are uncommon. Like variations in scale shape, different patterns of dorsal body microornamentation appear to confer different and conflicting performance advantages. The primitive pattern may reduce friction during locomotion and also enhances dirt shedding, especially in ground-dwelling forms from moist habitats. However, this smooth microornamentation generates shine that may compromise cryptic coloration, especially when scales are large. Many derived features show correlation with such large scales and appear to suppress shine. They occur most frequently in forms from dry habitats or forms that climb in vegetation away from the ground, situations where dirt adhesion is less of a problem. Microornamentation differences involving other parts of the body and other squamate groups tend to corroborate this functional interpretation. Microornamentation features can develop on lineages in different orders and appear to act additively in reducing shine. In some cases different combinations may be optimal solutions in particular environments, but lineage effects, such as limited reversibility and different developmental proclivities, may also be important in their genesis. The fine pits often found on cell surfaces are unconnected with shine reduction, as they are smaller than the wavelengths of most visible light.

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DNA sequence indicates the Lacertidae contain two subfamilies, Gallotiinae and Lacertinae, the latter comprising two monophyletic tribes, the Eremiadini of Africa and arid southwest and central Asia, and the Lacertini of Europe, northwest Africa and southwest and east Asia. Relationships within the 108 species of Lacertini are explored using mtDNA (291 bp cytochrome b; 329 bp 12S rRNA for 59 nominal species, and reanalysis of the data of Harris et al. 1998, and Fu 2000). The morphology of the tribe is reviewed and 64 of its characters (equivalent to 83 binary ones) also used to assess relationships. The Lacertini are assigned to 19 monophyletic units of 1 to 27 species, recognised here as the following genera (contents are indicated in brackets): Algyroides, Anatololacerta gen. nov. (L. danfordi group), Apathya (L. cappadocica group), Archaeolacerta (L. bedriagae), Dalmatolacerta gen. nov. (L. oxycephala), Darevskia (L. saxicola group), Dinarolacerta gen. nov. (L. mosorensis), Hellenolacerta gen. nov. (L. graeca), Iberolacerta (L. monticola group), Iranolacerta gen. nov. (L. brandtii and L. zagrosica), Lacerta s. str. (sand and green lizards, L. agilis group), Parvilacerta gen. nov. (L. parva and L. fraasii), Phoenicolacerta gen. nov. (L. laevis group), Podarcis (wall lizards), Scelarcis (L. perspicillata), Takydromus (Asian grass lizards), Teira (L. dugesii), Timon (ocellated lizards, L. lepida group) and Zootoca (L. vivipara). Both mtDNA and morphology indicate that Lacerta and Timon are sister taxa, and DNA suggests further possible relationships among genera (Fig. 1, p. 6). Neither DNA nor morphology indicates that the archaeolacertas (sometimes formalised as Archaeolacerta sens. lat.) form a clade. Instead, they are representatives of an ecomorph associated with living on rock exposures and using the narrow crevices that these contain. The Lacertidae probably arose in the European area, with the Gallotiinae later reaching Northwest Africa and the Canary Islands, and the ancestor of the Eremiadini invading Africa in the mid-Miocene. The Lacertini spread through much of their present European range and diversified, perhaps largely by repeated vicariance, around 12–16 My ago, producing the ancestors of the present mainly small-bodied genera, which then underwent often modest speciation. Three units spread more widely: the Lacerta-Timon clade of large-bodied lizards probably dispersed earliest, followed by Algyroides and then Podarcis. Overall, European Lacertidae show a pattern of repeated spread, often accompanied by restriction of previous groups. Expansion of Lacertini may have displaced earlier lacertid lineages from all or much of Europe; while spread of Podarcis may have restricted many other genera of Lacertini. The earlier expansion of the Lacerta-Timon clade probably did not have this effect, as difference in adult body size restricted competitive interaction with other forms. Several invasions of more distant areas also occurred: of East Asia by Takydromus over 10 My ago, and more recently of northwest Africa by Podarcis, Scelarcis and Timon, and Madeira by Teira. Relationships within the Eremiadini estimated from both mtDNA, and nDNA differ considerably from those based on morphology. They indicate relatively mesic forms may have diversified widely across Africa and given rise to at least three independent invasions of arid habitats. MtDNA also indicates that Lacerta andreanskyi belongs in the Eremiadini and may occupy a basal position there. It is assigned to a further new genus, Atlantolacerta gen. nov.

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In this paper we provide the first data on the distribution of amphibians and reptiles in the province of Guadalajara (Castilla – La Mancha, Spain). From a heropetological point of view Guadalajara is one of the most unknown provinces in Spain. At this time we have recorded 30 species, 15 of which were not previously cited in the area. Provisional maps of distribution are presented in 10 x 10 km U.T.M. squares. Acanthodactylus erythrurus, Lacerta lepida, Lacerta schreiberi, Podarcis hispanica, Podarcis muralis, Psammodromus algirus, Psammodromus hispanicus.

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Discovery of Psammodromus algirus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Sauria: Lacertidae) in French Provence-Alpes-Côte-d`Azur region. Review of the new observations of the species east of the Rhône. Recent herpetological investigations in the French departments of Vaucluse and Alpes-de-Haute-Provence in 2008 and in the Var in 2016 revealed the occurrence of populations of the Algerian sand lizard Psammodromus algirus a region in which the species was hitherto unknown as the river Rhône was considered the natural biogeographic barrier to the species’ distribution towards the East. An assessment of previous observations in the region is drawn up, origins of the populations are discussed, and research perspectivess are proposed.

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The preliminary distribution of amphibians and reptiles of the Ciudad Real province (Castilla-La Mancha, Spain) is presented. Thirty-four species, 13 amphibians and 21 reptiles, have been found. For each species, distribution maps in 10 x 10 Km U.T.M. quadrats and a discussion on the distribution, habitat and threats affecting its conservation are provided. We conclude that the Ciudad Real province presents one of the richest herpetofauna of the Iberian Peninsula, despite the scarcity of Eurosiberian species. Among all the species present in Ciudad Real, the relative abundance of Emys orbicularis populations is especially relevant compared to the rest of Spain. Similarly, it is remarkable the presence of a newly discovered population of Hemidactylus turcicus in Castilla-La Mancha, which represents one of the most inland populations of this species in the Iberian Peninsula.

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When encountering predators, prey animals often signal their ability to fight or flee to discourage the predator from an attack or pursuit. A key requirement for evolutionary stability of these predator-deterrent signals is that they convey honest information on the prey’s fighting or fleeing performance. In this study, we investigate the enigmatic ‘distress call’ of the lacertid lizard Psammodromus algirus, and test whether it conveys reliable information on an individual’s body size, and bite and sprint performance. Our acoustic analyses revealed a complex spectral structure in the vocalization of P. algirus, showing a wide frequency bandwidth, multiple harmonics, and a marked frequency modulation. This spectral design may allow such calls to be perceived by multiple potential predators, as it was assessed by a literature search comparing the call frequency range with the hearing ranges of P. algirus’ top predators. In addition, we found considerable inter-individual variation in the call design of lizards (‘call signatures’), which was linked with inter-individual variation in body size and maximum bite force, but not with sprint speed (a proxy of escape performance). As a whole, our study supports the hypothesis that the vocalizations of P. algirus lizards have the potential to serve as honest calls to deter predators. Further research on the behavioural response of predators towards lizard calls is essential in order to unravel the true predator deterrence potential of these calls.

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Am 13.06.2005 wurde am Rio Genal in Andalusien, Spanien, ein Algerischer Sandläufer Psammodromus algirus dabei beobachtet und fotografiert, wie er ein Paarungsrad von Orthetrum chrysostigma erbeutete und fraß.

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During the month of June 1980 the authors observed several species of amphibians and reptiles in Portugal. Notes are given on their habitat. Problems concerning the determination of some species of the genus Podarcis are discussed.

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We carried out a morphometric study of the skull throughout postnatal ontogeny in 14 species of Iberian lacertid lizards belonging to the genera Acanthodactylus, Algyroides, Psammodromus, Podarcis, Zootoca, Timon and Lacerta s. latu with the aim of elaborating a key of identification for the studies species. A total of sixty one characters showing interspecific variation are identified. The characters are defined in articulated and disarticulated skulls.

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Intra- und interspecific variation are analysed fpr the post-natal skull of the lacertid lizards Gallotia galloti, Actnhodactylus erythrurus, Algyroides marchi, Lacerta monticola, Lacerta vivipara, Podarcis bocagei, Podarcis hispanica, Podarcis muralis, Psammodromus algirus and Psammodromus hispanicus. Individual variations identified include: the prsence/absence, number and morphology of some structures, mainly in the lacrimal, sclerotic ossicles and macilla; the number and location of foramina and the degree of ossification of some processes in chondrocranial bones. No differences bones. No differences have been found between the sexes with respect to presence and morphology of the bones but some species show sexual dimorphism in the size and robustness of the head and this may be reflected in the individual. The most substantial variations seen are ontogenetic: the appearances of new traits; development of articulations; differences between species in the timing of the stages of development of a given structure; changes in the relative position of some cranial elements; and the degree of calcification or ossification of processes. A total of 63 characters showing interspecific variations are identified. Some have not previously been described while others used in previous studies are redefined here on the basis of new morphological information obtained.

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We present the distribution of amphibians and reptiles in Burgos (Spain), expressed by UTM 10x10Km.The situation of the country lake an area with different herpetofauna populations is a very important success; there are european-atlantic herpetofauna and typical mediterranean also.

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Our present study is an inventory of Amphibians and Reptiles at region of Beni Aziz. The work involves the index of the presence / absence and distribution. The selected zones are: Mountainous site (Djebels) (Sd), cultivated Site (Sc) and humid Site (Oued El kebir ) (So), different methods are used: listens chants anuran, the dip netting for larvae and tadpoles, search streams, visual inventory of Amphibians and Reptiles, trapping (pot Berber) for lizards and amphibians, search under various objects for snakes. We recorded 7 Amphibians and 15 Reptiles. The results also include the biogeographic status, distribution and habitat. We have elaborated an illustrated catalog of existing species in conclusion.

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Fire is amongst one of the main ecological drivers, particularly in the Mediterranean. Despite being a fire-adapted region, over the last few years we have seen an increase in the frequency of this type of disturbance. In 2017, a large fire in Mata da Margaraça, located in a protected area in central Portugal, created an adequate opportunity to assess its impacts. In this study, we evaluated the effect of fire severity on the abundance, richness, and diversity of reptiles. Richness and diversity were not affected by the cline of fire severity. However, at species-specific level, Psammodromus algirus, a common lizard and habitat generalist Mediterranean species, had its abundance positively affected with the increase of fire severity. The absence of a linear response from this taxonomic group reinforces the need for further studies on post-fire response, key information for the design and implementation of mitigation measures in the future.

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Mitigation-driven translocations represent an increasingly common management solution to reduce animal mortality and habitat loss caused by human development. Although they currently outnumber other translocation types, there is a lack of scientific approaches to evaluate the outcome of this management tool. We designed an experimental translocation with two groups of translocated males and two of control males of a small (6-14 g) lizard (totaling 120 individuals). Our results suggest that translocated individuals covered longer distances (53 vs. 18 m) from their respective release points in one month (on average), although this distance diminished over time. Displacing longer distances was associated with a body condition impoverishment and an increase in parasitization by ectoparasites. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that finds a positive relationship between covering longer distances and an increase in the number of mites. This was also explained by the initial mite load that lizards had, suggesting that controlling the infestation by mites is energetically demanding for lizards, being traded by locomotor activity. At least for those individuals in poorer body condition, we recommend the implementation of soft release (gradually accustoming individuals to their new environment by previously releasing them into controlled conditions) and deparasitization before accomplishing a mitigation driven translocation.

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In this work the actual state of knowledge on biogeography of amphibians and reptiles from Galicia is exposed in a synthetical way based upon distributional data gathered during the last 10 years. The geographic distribution of species and communities on latitudinal and altitudinal gradients indicates that climate and biotope are more important factors than latitude or altitude over sea. The presence of relict populations of eurosibirian taxa and the geographic distribution of endemism poit to the importance of climatic alterations during the Quaternary Age (Glaciarism). Thus, the eurosibirian taxa were driven towards Galicia following both the Cornice and the Cantabrian Chain as a mountains, giving rise to sub-especiation or speciation in allopatry of some endemisms. As the present data are poor we must consider our conclusions as a first hypothesis.

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In connectivity conservation and ecological network planning, the selection of focal fragmentationsensitive species represents a priority step. Nevertheless, despite their strategic role, selection of focal species has traditionally been carried out using charismatic and/or non objective approaches. In this way, actions of planning and conservation could be ineffective. Using as a case study Italian reptiles, we apply an expert-based approach for the selection of focal species on the basis of sensitivity to components of habitat fragmentation (habitat area reduction, increase of habitat isolation, increase of edge effect and landscape matrix disturbance) and of intrinsic ecological traits of the species (trophic level, dispersal ability, body size, niche breadth, rarity). The threshold values for each component of fragmentation defined a set of 21 focal species that can be divided into the three macro-components of human-induced habitat fragmentation (HIHF) towards which they show a sensitivity, the suitable spatial scale of populations and relative suitable habitat categories. Among these species, seven can be sampled easily with standard, low-cost field protocols. The selected species largely coincide with the species known in literature as fragmentation-sensitive.

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Oganismal performance abilities occupy a central position in phenotypic evolution; they are determined by suites of interacting lower-level traits (e.g., morphology and physiology) and they are a primary focus of natural selection. The mechanisms by which higher levels of organismal performance are achieved during evolution are therefore fundamentally important for understanding correlated evolution in general and coadaptation in particular. Here we address correlated evolution of morphological, physiological, and behavioral characteristics that influence interspecific variation in sprint speed in a clade of lacertid lizards. Phylogenetic analyses using independent contrasts indicate that the evolution of high maximum sprinting abilities (measured on a photocell-timed racetrack) has occurred via the evolution of (1) longer hind limbs relative to body size, and (2) a higher physiologically optimum temperature for sprinting. For ectotherms, which experience variable body temperatures while active, sprinting abilities in nature depend on both maximum capacities and relative performance levels (i.e., percent of maximum) that can be attained. With respect to temperature effects, relative performance levels are determined by the interaction between thermal physiology and thermoregulatory behavior. Among the 13 species or subspecies of lizards in the present study, differences in the optimal temperature for sprinting (body temperature at which lizards run fastest) closely matched interspecific variation in median preferred body temperature (measured in a laboratory photothermal gradient), in- dicating correlated evolution of thermal physiology and thermal preferences. variability of the preferred body tem- peratures maintained by each species is, across species, negatively correlated with the thermal-performance breadth (range of body temperatures over which lizards can run relatively fast). This pattern leads to interspecific differences in the levels of relative sprint speed that lizards are predicted to attain while active at their preferred temperatures. The highest levels of predicted relative performance are achieved by species that combine a narrow, precise distribution of preferred temperatures with the ability to sprint at near-maximum speeds over a wide range of body temperatures. The observed among-species differences in predicted relative speed were positively correlated with the interspecific variation in maximum sprinting capacities. Thus, species that attain the highest maximum speeds are (1) also able to run at near-maximum levels over a wide range of temperatures and (2) also maintain body temperatures within a narrow zone near the optimal temperature for sprinting. The observed pattern of correlated evolution therefore has involved traits at distinct levels of biological organization, that is, morphology, physiology, and behavior; and trade- offs are not evident. We hypothesize that this particular trait combination has evolved in response to coadaptational selection pressures. We also discuss our results in the context of possible evolutionary responses to global climatic change.

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In this paper we give the results about the herpetofauna in the Aiguamolls de l`Empordá obtained during a two-year study. 1069 observations concerning 19 species, 9 of them Amphibia and 10 of them Reptilia, have been made. The physiographic characteristics of the zone of study determine the establishment of a strictly mediterranean herpetological fauna, with abundance of species related with aquatic habitats. It is worthwhile to note the high percentage of Anurans in the Aiguamolls de l`Empordá as compared to other areas. For each one of the species we made a 3 x 3 UTM distribution map, and some aspects concerning feeding, breeding, preferential occupation of habits and present status in the zone were studied. In the last part of the paper we comment and review those species that have not been found by the authors, but are cited in literature about the zone.

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Algeria is a case study of biodiversity ignorance. To date, there are neither complete inventories for any taxa nor atlas across the country! Yet, Algeria is of great importance for global biodiversity. The coastal area of Algeria is part of the global biodiversity hostpot which is the Mediterranean perimeter and has several regional red spots of biodiversity. Moreover, the Saharan part encompasses a diversity of endemic organisms adapted to the strong conditions of drought. The Algerian authorities are deploying an ambitious project for conservation aiming to reach 50% of the country`s surface as protected areas! However, the location of these protected areas and their management don’t obey to a scientific evidence based, but are rather based on experts opinion. The main aim of this thesis is the study of the biodiversity ignorance distribution in Algeria by focusing on the `Linnean, Wallacean, and Darwinian Shortfalls` and to contribute to reduce them. The first chapter aims at reducing the Linnean Shortfall by proposing 1) a first checklist of reptiles and amphibians of Algeria which is the result of an accurate review of scientific publications on these taxa in North Africa. 2) a first pre-assessment of the conservation status of reptiles and amphibians of Algeria for the production of the first national red list. The second part of this manuscript deals with the ignorance of the geographical distribution of species. The purpose of this part is to map the ignorance which is defined as the difference between the expected specific richness diversity and the observed specific richness. The predicted species richness was modelled with two approaches: 1 ecological niche modelling with the maximum entropy method (MaxEnt) to predict the suitable habitats for each species and then add the different binary layers of species presence to calculate the specific richness. 2) Minimum convex polygon method was used to create range maps of each species and were auditioned to obtain predicted species richness. Both approaches have shown the same trend at a national scale: the concentration of the richest areas along the Saharan Atlas and the High Plateaus which are the transition zone between the Sahara and the Mediterranean part of Algeria. The opposition of the Saharan with a low species richness and the northern part with a higher species richness. Finally, the Saharan massifs of the Hoggar and Tassili form a very distinct zone with a much greater wealth compared to the rest of the Sahara. In terms of gaps, in the northern part, Kabylie, El Kala National Park and the Oran region are fairly well surveyed. In the Sahara, only a few points are clearly well prospected as Biskra, Bechar and some areas of the Hoggar and Tassili. The third part deals with the distribution of genetic llineages in the Maghreb. The aim of this section is to locate the phylogeographic breaks between the divergent eastern and western populations of the Maghreb and to try to understand the mechanisms that led to this pattern of genetic diversity. To answer these questions, I carried out a comparative phylogeography on 11 species of reptiles and amphibians with continuous and wide distribution in the Maghreb. Two suture zones have been identified: one zone on the border of Algeria and Morocco, the other in Kabylia west of the Soummam valley. The divergences between the eastern clades and the western clades occurred between the pre-Messinian periods up to the pliopleistocene boundary and were maintained in climatic refugia in the East and West of the Maghreb.

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For the most diurnal lizards, the source of heat for thermoregulation is primarily radiant energy. Heliothermy (heat gain by radiation) has been given a prominent role in basking lizards. However, thigmotherny (heat gain by conduction) could be relevant for heating in small sized lizards. To ascertain the importance of the different heat transmission modes to the thermoregulatory processes, an experimental study was conducted where the role of heat transmission modes on heating rates was analysed in the Mediterranean lizards Psammodromus algirrus and Acanthodactylus erythrurus (Lacertidae). The study was conducted under laboratory conditions, where two situations of different operative temperatures (38°C and 48°C) were simulated in a terrarium. Individuals were allowed to heat up during two minutes at both temperatures and under both heat transmission modes. Temperature had a significant effect on the heating rates of both species, heat gain per unit of time being faster at the higher operative temperature (48°C). The effect of heat transmission mode was significant for A. erythrurus but not for P. algirus. However, both species showed a significant interaction between temperature and source when the main heat transmission mode was conduction from the substrate (’thigmothermy’) than when heating was mainly due to heat gain by radiation (‘heliothermy’); at 38°C heating rates did not significant differ between transmission modes. These results show that in some species heat transmission mode modulate heat exchange with the environment, suggesting that the different predominant heat transmission mode is a subtle property of the thermal environment involved in lizard thermoregulation.

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Body temperatures, heat exchange rates, behavioral thermoregulation, and movement behavior (as an index of foraging mode) were studied in two widely distributed, medium sized lacertid lizards (Acanthodactylus erythrurus and Psammodromus algirus). Psammodromus algirus mainly inhabits broad-leaved forests, while A. erythrurus prefers open sandy areas with sparsely distributed vegetation. These habitat preferences parallel differences between the areas in which both genera presumably originated: Eurosaharian xeric steppes with high operative temperatures (Te’s) for Acanthodactylus, and Mediterranean open forests with lower Te’s for Psammodromus. Field observations showed that percentage of time spent basking and basking rate (no. of basks per minute) were negatively related to Te, although average bask duration was not. Percentage of time spent moving, moving rate (no. Of moves per minute), and the average duration of Individual moves were inversely related to Te, and were higher in P. algirus. The percentage of total locomotion time that was spent moving in the shade was also higher in P. algirus. Behavioral thermoregulation strategies differed between both species in a laboratory thermogradient where P. algirus basked more often and for shorter periods, and selected warmer patches, than A. erythrurus. Selected body temperatures (Tb’s) in a laboratory thermogradient were significantly higher in A. erythrurus than in P. algirus. Shade Seeking Tb was higher in A. Erythrurus, while Resume Basking Tb did not differ significantly between the two species. Heating and cooling rates were also different in the two species: A. erythrurus warmed more slowly, and cooled faster, than P. algirus. Our data support the existence of a complex syndrome which combines aspects of the behavior, physiology, and ecology of both species, so that the thermal consequences of inhabiting a certain type of habitat can be counterbalanced by behavioral and physiological means that, in turn, affect movement (and hence foraging) behavior. Thus, the more active species (P. algirus) heated faster, colled more slowly, and basked more often but for shorter periods and at warmer patches than the less active one (A. erythrurus).

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One of the primary assumptions of the immunocompetence handicap hypothesis is that testosterone has an immunosuppressive effect, but conflicting results have been reported in a variety of bird species concerning the effect of testosterone on the humoral and the T cell-mediated components of the immune system. The T cell-mediated component of the immune system is particularly important during the breeding season, because the likelihood of injury during sexual competition is high and T cell-mediated immunity is essential for healing wounds and resisting infection. In this study we examined the effect of experimentally increased levels of testosterone during breeding season on T cell-mediated immunity in male lizards of two Mediterranean lacertid species, Psammodromus algirus and Acanthodactylus erythrurus. The hormonal treatment significantly increased testosterone of the experimental individuals. T cell-mediated responses to phytohemagglutinin stimulation were significantly suppressed in testosterone-treated males of both species. Furthermore, there was a significant negative relationship between individual variability in T cell-mediated responsiveness and plasma testosterone concentration. The present study is the first to demonstrate testosterone-induced suppression of T cell-mediated immunity in lizards.

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This study is the first contribution to the evaluation of reptile diversity in different habitats of M’sila region, Algeria. We carried out 94 trips between 2016 and 2018 across three sites: Mergueb (six stations), L’mhazem (three stations) and Kaf Afoul (two stations), on average, accompanied by prospectors. Our aims were to make an inventory of reptilian species in this region, as well as to study their diversity, distribution, ecology and abundance. Altogether, we recorded 193 specimens belonging to 22 species: two turtles, one amphisbaenian, twelve lizards and seven snakes. Two species classified as Near Threatened by the IUCN were recorded: Uromastyx acanthinurus (Bell, 1825) and Daboia mauritanica (Duméril & Bibron, 1848). Statistical analysis revealed that the type of habitat directly influences the distribution of reptiles in the study area. Although this small area is rich in reptilian species, their abundance remains low and worrying.

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This study aims at providing the first faunistic and ecological data on the herpetofauna of the Oum El Bouaghi region. The observation period was spread over two seasons (2018-2019), from mid-March to the end of October. A total of 18 species of reptiles and 4 species of amphibians have been recorded. The data collected were analyzed in terms of the biogeographical and trophic aspects of the herpetofauna of the study area. The region of Oum El Bouaghi has a great herpetofaunistic diversity, which shows how important it is to ensure its protection.

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The herpetological populations in the islands of Zembra and Zembretta -- An extensive research of the Reptilian fauna on these two islands was conducted through three expéditions by the Tunis Science Faculty. The islands of Zembra is populated by three species of lizards Psammodromus algirus (Lacertids), Chalcides ocellatus (Scincids) and Hemidactylus turcicus (Gekkonids) and the three species of Colubrid snakes: Malpolon monspessulanus, Macroprotodon cucullatus, Coluber hippocrepis. On the Island of Zembretta only the three species of lizards mentioned above were found. Their distribution and biotope were precised. Two sea turtles visit their costal waters: Caretta caretta (Chelonids) and Dermochelys coriacea (Dermochelyids). The terrestrial herpetofauna on Zembra and Zembretta displays the fundamental characteristics of an insular environment — spécific poorness: the western slopes of the Cap Bon tip include 11 Lacertids, 7 Ophids, 3 Chelonids and 6 Batrachian species. — individual abundance in the Zembra Lacertid populations and even more on Zembretta. — composition unbalance: some species would not find convenient biotops or preys on these two islands but the absence of a few others species cannot be ecologically explained.

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We have studies the femoral pores of 387 subjects belonging to five species of Lacertidae family (Reptilia) of the región of Andalucia (Spain): Lacerta hispanica Steind., Lacerta lepida Daud., Psammodromus algirus L., Psammodromus hispanicus Fitz., Acanthodactylus erythrurus Schinz. We have observed that these femoral pores have a big importance in the sexual dimorphism which can be observed in the subjects after the birth. Possibly they take part in the phenomenous connected with the territorial behaviour of animals.

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Eight microsatellite loci are described for the lizard Psammodromus algirus, a species widely used as a model in behavioural and ecological studies. All loci were highly polymorphic (six alleles or more per locus) in a sample of 24 individuals from a single site near Navacerrada (central Spain). Observed heterozygosity ranged from 0.29 to 0.96. These markers will be used to study mating strategies and determinants of reproductive success in this species.

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During a trip in the Algarve in the summer of 1987, a lot of amphibians and reptiles were seen. Of the amphibians Rona perezi and Bufo bufo spinosus were much more common than Pleuro- deles walt/ and Hyla meridiana/is. Mauremys caspica leprosa, E m ys orbicularis, T arentola mauritanica, Hemidactylus turcicus, Lacerta le- pida, Acamhodactylus erythrurus, Psammodro- mus algirus, Blanus cinereus, Chamaeleo cha- maeleon, Natrix maura were found alive. A dead Coluber hippocrepis and a skin of Elaphe sea/oris and Malpolon m onspessulanus were found. Short notes are given on the habitats of these ani- mals.

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I had the opportunity to gather information on the Tunisian herpetofauna during a one week visit to Tunisia in September 1995. Tarelllola mauritanica, Natrix maura. Malpolon mons- pessultmus. Chalcides ocellatus tiligugu. Rana salwrica , Bufo mauretanicus and Bl{{o l`iridis were all encountered in the surroun- dings of my hotel in Hammam-Sousse. I pri- marily saw reptiles in shops and at markets where they were offered as souvenirs either dried (and sometimes mounted) or preserved in alcohol. The dried animals were displayed in small glass cases or placed in a picture frame. Live animals were sold at the markets as well. Dried and framed lizards seen inclu- ded Mabu.va ••ittata, C. ocellatus tiligugu. Scincus scincus and Clwmaeleo chamaeleon salwrica. Dried snakes encountered were N. maura. Co/uber algims. Spalerosophis sp.. Malpolon monspes.mlcmus. Malpolon moilen- sis. P .mmmophis sclwkari. Macrol`ipera mcw- ritanica (and/or Macmvipera deserti), Cerastes cerastes. Cerastes ••ipera, Naja haje lwje and Eryx spec. There were more desert species offered in Gabes than in Sousse (for example S. scincus and M. moilensis). I saw Coluber hippocrepis in place of C. algims in Nabeul. The correlation between the species offered and the habitats present where the ani- mals were offered suggested that they were caught and processed locally. I occasionally saw a mounted li1ranus griseus or Uromastyx accmthinura in the Nabeul markets. The most commonly encountered reptile on the market was Clwmaeleo chamaeleon .mlwrica. offered both live and dried. Various reptiles were set on tourists. and then the tourists charged for the usc of the animals as a photo prop. Young Testudo graeca, seen in every market in every city visited, were clearly meant for tourists (according to the dealers these were the easiest to smuggle back to Europe). Relatively few animals were seen in their natural habitats. Rana salwrica and Mauremys leprosa were seen in Gabes. Rcma salwrica, M. /epro.m, Ophisops occidentalis. Psammodromus algi- l`liS en Acalltlwdactylus cf. boskianus were observed between Kairouan and Kesra (direc- tion Makthar). It is ironic that the legislation regarding kee- ping of reptiles has become so strict for terra- rium enthusiasts in Europe while no or inade- quate measures are taken to protect the ani- mals in their countries of origin. Our legisla- tive measures are then senseless.

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Within a species one can often distinguish between groupings which correspond to objectively different levels of differentiation. The level of these differentiations may vary between semlspecies and local population rank. On the other hand the zoological system supplies us with only one category for the nomenclatoral expression of infraspeclflc relative relationship. Several examples taken from the European herpetofauna are used to demonstrate the absurdity of infraspeclflc concepts currently accepted for many European, especially Mediterranean reptile species. An alternative to this unsatisfactory situation would be the concept of `megasubspecies` as developed by American ornithologists. This concept would allow to express Infraspeclflc relationship also in herpetology better than before, but nevertheless in harmony with the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature.

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Vocalizations of the Iberian lacertids Psammodromus algirus and P. hispanicus as well as of the Canarian endemic Gallotia atlantica, G. galloti galloti, g. eisentrauti, G. caesaris, g. gomerae, g. palmae and G. stehlini were analyzed sonagraphically. The structure of the calls resembles those known from the families Pygopodidae (Lialis, Delma) and Iguanidae (Anolis) rather than those of Gekkonidae. The vocal repertoire of the lacertids is rather simple; it consists of clicks and various combinations of tonal and noisy components. Duration and frequency range of the sounds are variable; at least frequency range seems to vary with individual size, body temperature and the level of excitement. Most lizards vocalized when handled, but vocalization was also heard in free-ranging animals kept in cages and observed in the field. Sounds are uttered by inferior individuals defending a hide but also by dominant animals pursuing a rival. Field observations indicate that vocal activity is most intensive after sunset and may last until midnight. It is argued that vocalization in the highly territorial lizards of genus Gallotia may help regulate the high population densities, especially in the dark when optical signals do not work. The subtropical climate and the heat-gathering lava of the Canary islands make a nocturnal activity possible. The systematic significance of vocalization in Gallotia is discussed. Vocalization may be a synapomorphic character defining the genus Gallotia, but it is also present in Psammodromus and has been mentioned for Podarcis, Lacerta and Ichnotropis. From this, a multiple evolution can also not be excluded. Therefore, the common derived karyotype of the Gallotia species is the only established synapomorphic character justifying a separate generic but not at all familial rank for the Canary lizards.

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Cette note est destinée à faire le point sur le peuplement herpétologique du Maroc. Elle comprend: — Une liste des formes effectivement présentes au Maroc, avec les affinités biogéographiques des espèces, et éventuellement les travaux récents où ces formes sont étudiées. — Des commentaires sur les espèces africaines douteuses en Europe et européennes douteuses en Afrique. — Une liste des espèces à rechercher au Maroc. — Une discussion sommaire sur la systématique de certaines espèces marocaines.

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Reptiles and amphibians in Portugal The author spend two weeks in July 2002 in Beira, Portugal. The following observations were made: Vale de Asna (Serra do Açor): the sound of several Alytes obstreticans boscai (probably), several Tarentola mauritanica, one Podarcis hispanica type 1, many Psammodromus algirus, several Chalcides chalcides striatus, larvae of Rana iberica, Triturus marmoratus marmoratus, Triturus helveticus sequeirai and Triturus boscai, one adult Rana perezi, one dead Bufo bufo, three Natrix maura (half-grown and adult). Waterfall of Sobral (Serra do Açor): many Psam-modromus algirus, several larvae, juvenile and adult Rana iberica, many juvenile Bufo bufo. Pena (Serra da Lousã): several Psammodromus algirus. Mata da Margaraça (Serra do Açor): several Psam-modromus algirus, one Podarcis hispanica (probably). Fraga de Pena (Serra do Açor): several larvae and two adult Rana iberica, one Natrix maura (probably), several larvae and three adult Chioglossa lusitanica. Serra da Estrela: Near the top of mount Torre (between 1750 and 1993 m): many Iberolacerta monticola monticola, many larvae of Bufo species, many adult Rana perezi, one adult Rana iberica, one adult Hyla arborea molleri. Around 1200 m, one adult and one juvenile Timon lepidus, one adult Lacerta schreiberi. At 1600 m one juvenile Lacerta schreiberi. Between Piódão and Foz d’Égua (Serra do Açor): one half-grown Natrix natrix astreptophora, one juvenile Natrix maura (probably newly hatched), several Psammodromus algirus and one adult Malpolon monspessulanus. It is stated that Portugal is a very interesting place for spotting reptiles and amphibians in nature.

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The eastern Pre-Pyrenees were prospected using 5x5 UTM square from 1974 to 1986. Nineteen reptiles were found. Their geographical and altimetric distribution is given, and its corology discussed taking into account other data from the Pyrenees. The topoclimatical effects and the particular disposition of the mountain range, are the key factors to understand the corology and the altimetric distribution of herpetofauna. The study area shows mediterranean elements as well as Pyrenean and mid-european ones. Cerdaña basin acts as a bndge between the herpetofauna from France and the more meridional species from Spain. The Segre nver divides the Pre-Pyrenees in two big biogeographical areas: the eastem one very close to axial Pyrenees and characterized by boreal and the western one with a more mediterranean faunistic elements.

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Reproductive behaviour in Psammodromus hispanicus and Psammodromus algirus is pictu- red. P. hispanicus males grasp the dorsal skin of the females with their jaws during copula- tion of 40 s; males of P. algirus seize the females in the side of the neck and copulate for 8 min. Oviposition of both species is described. Dimensions of eggs, and duration of incu- bation and measurements of juvenile P. hispanicus are given. Specimens of the latter species are sexually mature within the year. In captivity they may live for three years or more. The change of juvenile colouration into adult pattern of P. hispanicus is reported. Rhythmical snout pushing as an expression of submissive behaviour; head shaking to ward off threats; and fights between males are described for P. hispanicus.

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The interspecific relationships among female size, clutch size, egg size, and hatchling size were examined for 64 European lacertids. The eggs of all species increased linearly in both linear dimensions and mass during incubation. Across species initial egg mass was positively correlated with juvenile mass, with an allometric relationship exponent of 0.87. Initial egg mass across species increased proportionally with female mass to the power of 0.57. Moreover, an increase in maternal mass was also accompanied by an increase in clutch size. The number of eggs per clutch across species scaled with female mass to the power of 0.39. Removing the effect of female mass resulted in a negative correlation between egg mass and clutch size. Species for which the average egg size was lower than expected on the basis of female mass, tended to have larger relative clutch size. The total egg mass per clutch was about one third of female mass (exponent 0.94).

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Le régime alimentaire et l’activité journalière du lézard Psammodromus algirus ont été étudiés durant la période de son maximum d’activité (Mai – Juin 2013) dans un environnement semi-aride au sein du Parc National de Belezma au Nord-Est de l’Algérie. Le régime trophique été analysé à partir des contenus stomacaux de 21 individus, et les patrons de son activité journalière par un échantillonnage standardisé le long de plusieurs transects pseudo-aléatoires. Au total, 239 proies appartenant à 98 taxons ont été identifiées. Les arthropodes été l’alimentation principale avec une dominance des Coléoptères et tout particulièrement l’espèce Prasocuris phellandrii ainsi que les Hyménoptères. L’étude de l’occurrence à fait ressortir la famille des Chrysomelidae comme la seule famille consommée régulièrement. Les différents groupes taxinomiques consommés ont révélés une variation significative en fonction du mois; durant le mois de Juin le régime alimentaire été plus diversifiémais contrairement moins équilibré par rapport au mois de Mai. La taille des proies consommées démontre un très large éventail allant de 0,5 mm jusqu’à 50 mm. L’activité journalière été de type bimodal durant toute la période d’étude sans variations mensuelles.

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The large psammodromus, Psammodromus algirus, is one of the most widespread Mediterranean lacertid lizards; unfortunately, its ecology in North Africa remains understudied. In this study, we present detailed data on trophic ecology, daily activity patterns during the breeding season, and the maximum activity period of this lizard in a semi-arid environment at Belezma National Park (Batna, northeast Algeria). Feeding data were collected using stomach flushing, and daily activity patterns were analyzed by surveying standardized transects. Analysis of the contents of 21 stomachs revealed 238 prey items of 74 different taxa classified into five classes, 18 orders, 50 families, and 71 different genera. The diet was highly diverse and primarily consisted of arthropods. Insects were the predominant food comprising 85% of all prey, followed by arachnids (13%). Regarding temporal variation in diet, prey-species richness did not vary noticeably between months; however, the number of individuals within prey categories did. The size of prey consumed varied over a very broad spectrum and followed a logarithmic distribution, but did not vary between months. Concerning daily activity, lizards exhibited a bimodal activity pattern. Overall, compared to littoral and European populations studied in other works, diet differed slightly and daily activity was remarkably reduced in the morning and postponed in the afternoon.

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We examined lines of arrested growth (LAG) in femurs from 20 individuals of the sand lizard Psammodromus algirus sampled from the north of Tunisia (North Africa). The number of the LAGs reached a maximum of three. The instant speed of linear growth in the first year was 6.6×10–2 mm/day and 3.76×10–2 mm/day the second year. The diameter of the marrow cavity was significantly larger in female (334.52 μm±115.68 μm) than in male (324.42 μm±114.2 μm). The growth rate observed in P. algirus followed the known growth pattern in lacertid lizards and the difference in the diameter of the marrow cavity between males and females may be related to a sexual dimorphism.

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Study of the system Tick-Lizard in the national park of El Kala (North-East Algeria). -- Among the emerging diseases rickettsioses would hold a prominent place in Algeria. The news was a reminder that some diseases can easily cross the species barrier and affect humans especially those related to wildlife. The pathogenicity of ticks `Ixodes ricinus is located on several levels. Ixodes ricinus in Algeria remains among the most infected ticks in North Africa, however, which represent the highest rate of infection observed in southern Europe. Many species of ticks parasitize reptiles especially lizards. Those when they are parasitized by ticks (Ixodes) are regarded as competent reservoirs of Borrelia and in a few exceptions a reservoir incompetent. For most of Ixodes (immature) Ixodes ricinus, Ixodes scapularis, ticks feed on the blood of lizards. This has served to emphasize the importance of Ixodes in epidemiology as primary vector of Lyme disease and the important role that play the lizard in the maintenance and movement of Borreliae. In this context, we are interested to ectoparasites lizards and role in the epidemiological cycle of the Rickettsioses. Our results are quite important because after PCR ticks we could detect the presence of Rickettsia sp. in 35% of all ticks collected. Given the number of rickettsioses transmitted by ticks (Rickettsia conori, `spotty mediterranean fever”, Coxiella burneti `Q fever `, R. africae `The african tick fever `), our results could not be ignored for since this is the first time that rickettsiae were detected in ticks from lizards.

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Mammals that build extensive open burrow systems are often classified as ecosystem engineers, since they have the potential to modulate the availability of resources for themselves and other organisms. Lizards may benefit from the heterogeneity created by these structures, especially if coupled with an increased offer of sites for refuge and thermoregulation. However, information about these engineering effects by burrowing animals is scarce. We investigated the influence of European rabbit burrows on several parameters of a Mediterranean lizard community (abundance, density, diversity and body condition) in three different habitats (open pastures, holm oak and scrub patches). We found that lizards were positively associated with burrows, and that burrows determined lizard presence at otherwise unfavourable habitats. Moreover, community parameters such as density and species richness were higher in sites with burrows. Burrows influenced lizard species in different ways, and were also relevant for other Mediterranean vertebrates, as revealed by questionnaires to experts. We also explored the possible resources provided by burrows for lizards. Warrens offer relatively abundant prey and appropriate retreat sites for refuge and thermoregulation. Warrens may have further implications within the ecosystem, acting as stepping stones, allowing lizards to reach otherwise inaccessible habitat patches. This study shows that European rabbit warrens have a positive influence on lizard density and diversity, and confirms the role of rabbits as ecosystem engineers. This reinforces the need for appropriate conservation measures for rabbits, especially given their threatened status in the Iberian Peninsula. Furthermore, our study highlights that taking into account the influence of engineering activities increases our awareness of species interactions, and may translate into more adequate conservation measures for the preservation of biodiversity.

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The Herpetological Collection of the Trieste Natural History Museum has almost 700 specimens of European Sauria belonging to about 33 taxa, including all the lacertids of northern Adriatic re- gions. The origin of the collection dates back to the foundation of the Museum of Trieste in 1846, but it was increased mainly between 1871 and 1939. The Herpetological Collection of the Trieste Natural History Museum has a great scientific and historical importance; it documents the varia- tion of the composition and distribution of northern Adriatic Sauria fauna during this century, in- cluding endemic varieties typical of little islands.

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A phylogenetic-comparative approach was used to assess and refine existing secondary structure models for a frequently studied region of the mitochondrial encoded large subunit (16S) rRNA in two large lizard lineages within the Scincomorpha, namely the Scincidae and the Lacertidae. Potential pairings and mutual information were analyzed to identify site interactions present within each lineage and provide consensus secondary structures. Many of the interactions proposed by previous models were supported, but several refinements were possible. The consensus structures allowed a detailed analysis of rRNA sequence evolution. Phylogenetic trees were inferred from Bayesian analyses of all sites, and the topologies used for maximum likelihood estimation of sequence evolution parameters. Assigning gamma-distributed relative rate categories to all interacting sites that were homologous between lineages revealed substantial differences between helices. In both lineages, sites within helix G2 were mostly conserved, while those within helix E18 evolved rapidly. Clear evidence of substantial site-specific rate variation (covarion-like evolution) was also detected, although this was not strongly associated with specific helices. This study, in conjunction with comparable findings on different, higher-level taxa, supports the ubiquitous nature of site-specific rate variation in this gene and justifies the incorporation of covarion models in phylogenetic inference.

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The timing of organisms’ senescence is developmentally programmed but also shaped by the interaction between environmental inputs and life-history traits. In ectotherms, ageing dynamics are still poorly understood despite their particularities concerning thermoregulation, regeneration capacity, or growth trajectory. Here, we investigate the role of life-history traits such as age, sex, body size, body condition, and tail autotomy (i.e self-amputation) in shaping telomere length of six populations of the Algerian sand lizard (Psammodromus algirus) distributed across an elevational gradient from 300 to 2500 meters above the sea level. Additionally, we show in a review table the available information on reptiles’ telomere length. We found that telomeres elongated with lizards’ age. We also observed that body size and age class showed a positive relationship, suggesting that cell replication did not shorten lizards’ telomeres by itself. Elevation affected telomere length in a non-linear way, a pattern that mirrored the variation in age structure across elevation. Telomere length was unaffected by tail autotomy, and was sex-independent, but positively correlated with body condition. Our results show that telomeres elongate throughout the first four years of lizards’ lifetime, a process that stress the role of telomerase in maintaining ectothermic telomeres, and, likely, in extending lifespan in organisms with indeterminate growth. Regarding the non-linear impact that elevation had on telomere length of lizards, our results suggest that habitat (mainly temperature) and organisms’ condition might play a key role in regulation ageing rate. Our findings emphasize the relevance of understanding species’ life histories (e.g. age and body condition) and habitat characteristics for fully disentangling the causes and consequences of lifespan trajector

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Between 5.5 and 7.0 m.y. B.P. the formation of the Strait of Gibraltar allowed water from the Atlantic Ocean to fill the basin now known as the Mediterranean Sea. This event divided the amphibian and reptile fauna then inhabiting southern Spain and northern Morocco into allopatric and, presumably, conspecific faunas. Because the strait has continued from its formation to the present as a geographic barrier to the exchange of terrestrial vertebrates between Africa and Europe, this region and its native herpetofauna provide a natural laboratory in which various tenets of current biogeographic theory may be evaluated. Electrophoretically obtained allozymic data allowed an empirical biogeographic analysis of the trans-Gibraltar herpetofauna. Estimates of accumulated genetic distance (Nei`s D) varied from 0.0 to 0.6 between Spanish and Moroccan populations of 17 conspecific taxa. Further examination of these genetic data demonstrated that the rate of migration between these two continental populations was greater than or less than the estimated rate of mutation. European and African populations of several taxa traditionally presumed to be homogeneous were shown to be genically heterogeneous. Analysis of the distribution of alleles within and between continental populations suggests that the ability to maintain genetic continuity across the marine barrier varies from species to species. No demonstrable correlation was found between degree of habitat specificity and frequency of occurrence of individuals, and the genic differentiation demonstrated by Spanish populations of each taxon.

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Psammodromus algirus y Psammodromus edwardsianus (Reptilia: Lacertidae) son hospedadores en España de nematodos pertenecientes al género Parapharyngodon (Nematoda: Oxyuridomorpha, Pharyngodonidae). Una atenta observación de los rangos de distribución, tanto de parásitos como de hospedadores, sugiere que los primeros pudieron haber llegado accidentalmente a España desde el Nuevo Mundo en barcos de la “Carrera de Indias”.

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Psammodromus algirus from Madrid, Ávila, and Cádiz provinces, Spain, and P. occidentalis from Cádiz province were examined for the presence of external and internal parasites. Among those parasites represented were: Ixodes inopinatus (Arthropoda, Arachnida, Acari, Ixodidae); Haemaphysalis punctata (Arthropoda, Arachnida, Acari, Ixodidae); Skrjabinelazia cf. taurica (Nematoda, Secernentea, Ascaridida, Seuratidae); Spauligodon carbonelli (Nematoda: Secernentea, Oxyurida, Pharyngodonidae); Parapharyngodon psammodromi (Nematoda, Secernentea, Oxyurida, Pharyngodonidae); Abbreviata abbreviata (Nematoda, Secernentea, Physalopteroidea, Physalopteridae); Mesocestoides sp. (Platyhelminthes, Cestoda, Cyclophyllidea, Mesocestoididae); and Oochoristica cf. tuberculata (Platyhelminthes, Cestoda, Cyclophyllidea, Davaineidae). Details regarding localities from which host species were collected, number of parasites and sites of attachment, and estimates of prevalence and intensities of infection are presented. Nematode diversity, along with parasite prevalence, parasitaemia, and relationship to elevation are also discussed. A table of Psammodromus parasites in Spain is also included.

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Pairwise sequence polymorphism in mitochondrial DNA and levels of differentiation among presumptive gene loci (expressed as Nei`s D^) tend to be greater between populations separated by the Strait of Gibraltar than between populations inhabiting either Morocco or Spain. Ancestral Psammodromus algirus inhabiting Iberia and North Africa while the Strait of Gibraltar was being formed and stabilized (Miocene-Pliocene) evolved in association with physiogeographic change brought about by this barrier to gene exchange. Considered in units of genetic change per kilometer, mtDNA differentiation is greater in Morocco than in Spain, and allozyme differentiation is slightly greater than, or equal to, that in Spain, suggesting that P. algirus has a longer and more complex history in Morocco than in Spain.

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Relationships among representatives of five genera of lacertid lizards from Iberia, Morocco, and South Africa were studied using quantitative micro-complement fixation analysis of serum albumin evolution. Using the albumin molecular clock to establish divergence times we suggest (1) South African Ichnotropis and North African Psammodromus diverged from the lineage representing Lacerta lepida-L. monticola during the Oligocene, (2) South African Pedioplanis and Heliobolus diverged from this lineage during the late Miocene, and (3) ancestral representatives of L. andreanszkyi, L. perspicillata and Podarcis hispanica diverged from lineages leading to L. monticola and L. lepida during the mid-Miocene. Radiation within the Palearctic Lacertidae has clearly been extensive, yet fewer than twenty percent of the species in this radiation have been examined biochemically. Until additional data can be gathered, the current classification of the Palearctic Lacertidae cannot be much improved and we recommend adherence to the taxonomy proposed by Arnold (1973).

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The lacertid lizard Psammodromus algirus has been considered a uniform species across its distribution area in North Africa and southwestern Europe. Coloration data and discriminant function analysis of morphological data corroborate mitochondrial DNA and allozyme data to indicate northern and southern Iberian populations represent unknown species that are described here. Additional work is needed to fully understand bio-geography and variation in this species complex.

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The study that we present has two objectives: to expand our knowledge of the herpetofauna in the region of Tiaret and bordering areas, with a primary focus on distribution and update the threats that will affect this group, to propose solutions to protect and conserve the species of these areas. In spring 2014, we identified in this study, 6 species of amphibians and 22 species of reptiles. In some cases, we collected biological samples for later analysis. The majority of locations where prospected between May 22 and June 7, has a high biodiversity of herpetofauna, which shows how important it is, to preserve this species.

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Climate change has been widely accepted as one of the major threats for global biodiversity and understanding its potential effects on species distribution is crucial to optimise conservation planning in future scenarios under global change. Integrating detailed climatic data across spatial and temporal scales into species distribution modelling can help to predict potential changes in biodiversity. Consequently, this type of data can be useful for developing efficient biodiversity management and conservation planning. The provision of such data becomes even more important in highly biodiverse regions, currently suffering from climatic and landscape changes. The Transboundary Biosphere Reserve of Meseta Ibérica (BRMI; Portugal-Spain) is one of the most relevant reserves for wildlife in Europe. This highly diverse region is of great ecological and socio-economical interest, suffering from synergistic processes of rural land abandonment and climatic instabilities that currently threaten local biodiversity. Aiming to optimise conservation planning in the Reserve, we provide a complete dataset of historical and future climate models (1 x 1 km) for the BRMI, used to build a series of distribution models for 207 vertebrate species. These models are projected for 2050 under two climate change scenarios. The climatic suitability of 52% and 57% of the species are predicted to decrease under the intermediate and extreme climatic scenarios, respectively. These models constitute framework data for improving local conservation planning in the Reserve, which should be further supported by implementing climate and land-use change factors to increase the accuracy of future predictions of species distributions in the study area.

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Understanding how habitat type and deterioration may affect parasitism is important to assess human-induced environmental change effects on host-parasite dynamics. In this study, we examined inter-population differences in parasites load in a Mediterranean lizard, Psammodromus algirus (Linnaeus, 1758). We analyzed prevalence and intensity of infection by blood parasites and ectoparasites in two populations separated by a 400-m elevational gradient and with different habitat types that also differed in the degree of human alteration. We also compared data obtained in the same populations after ten years lapsed to assess whether there have been temporary changes in parasites load. Results showed that prevalence and intensity of blood parasites were higher in the deteriorated lowland holm oak forest population than in the well preserved upland oak forest. In contrast, the prevalence and intensity of infection by Ixodes ticks was higher in the upland oak forest population. Individuals from the lowland population were in poorer condition. Intensities of infection by blood parasites and ectoparasites have decreased significantly from 2005-2006 to 2016 in both populations. Our results suggest that inter-population differences in parasite load may be explained by differences in habitat characteristics. This study contributes to identify which ecosystems and habitats are most sensitive to prevalence and intensity of infection by parasites.

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Aim To determine genetic substructuring within the lacertid lizard Psammodromus algirus. To compare levels of variation across a geological barrier, the Strait of Gibraltar, and to compare this against the known age of the barrier using a molecular clock hypothesis. To compare the effect of the barrier within this species with previously published data from other organisms. Location The Iberian Peninsula and North Africa. Methods Partial sequences from the mitochondrial cytochrome b, 12S rRNA and 16S rRNA genes were obtained from 101 specimens belonging to the subfamily Gallotiinae and used in this study. The data set was aligned using ClustalX and phylogenetic trees produced using both maximum-parsimony and maximum-likelihood methods. Maximum likelihood estimates of divergence times for the combined data set (12S + 16S + cytochrome b) were obtained after discovery of lineage rate constancy across the tree using a likelihood ratio test. Results Psammodromus algirus contains divergent eastern and western mtDNA clades within the Iberian Peninsula. The western clade has northern and southern lineages in Iberia and one in North Africa. This phylogeographical pattern indicates that the lizard invaded North Africa after the opening of the Strait, presumably by natural rafting. Main conclusions As in several other species, current patterns of genetic diversity within P. algirus are not directly related to the opening of the Strait of Gibraltar. Widespread sampling on both sides of the barrier is necessary to determine its effect on species in this area accurately.

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Habitat selection of Psammodromus algirus and P. hispanicus was studied along a successional vegetation gradient in Southern Spain. The two species select areas with a high cover of herbs and bushes at ground level and at a height of 10 cm above ground. Whereas P. algirus avoids sandy substrates and selects wooded areas, P. hispanicus, which does not enter the forest, occupies areas with a denser cover of low shrubs and herbs. Therefore, and despite their coincidence in the centre of the habitat gradient and hence their high overlap in habitat use, both species appear to be segregated, with P. hispanicus having a narrower spatial niche than P. algirus. The observed differences in habitat selection are discussed in the light of differences in morphology, reproductive constraints and predator avoidance. We conclude that interspecific competition plays a negligible role in the habitat segregation of the two species.

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We studied summer activity patterns and thermoregulation in the Mediterranean lizard Psammodromus algirus in a holm oak wood in Central Spain. The circadian rhythm curve was bimodal, with a pronounced peak after sunrise, a minimum at noon and a second lower peak in the afternoon. Increased activity in the morning could be explained by insolation levels, whereas the midday low was caused by the rise in temperature. There was a strong positive correlation between body temperature and both air and ground temperatures. Nevertheless, there was no significant correlation between body and air temperatures when the effect of radiation was removed, which was done by considering only individuals in the shade at high temperatures. Activity showed a bell-shaped relationship with body and air temperatures, with maximum activity at 24.5°C (air temperature) and 31.4°C (body temperature). The spatial distribution pattern of P. algirus (selection of sunny areas and distance to the vegetation edge) reflects the environmental temperatures that are optimal for activity; the lizards show a strong preference for sunny patches when air temperature is lower than the optimum. We conclude that heliothermy is the only viable thermoregulation pattern in Mediterranean forest environments, with heat conduction playing a negligible role.

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Colour pattern and its relation to sex, size and season were investigated in three coastal populations of Psammodromus algirus from NE Spain. Eight pattern variables, as well as body size and reproductive parameters, were recorded for 430 specimens. Results show that yellow head pattern was present in both males and females and depended on body size and locality. Furthermore, its seasonal variation was associated with reproductive activity in males. Orange infralabials appear almost exclusively in adult males. Blue ocelli constitute a potential size signal in intraspecific interactions, especially in males. The attainment of sexual maturity modified tail colour (antipredatory) and dorsolateral stripes (cryptic). Bright spots on hindlimbs varied between sites. Colour pattern is interpreted as a trade-off between different selective pressures including crypsis and intraspecific interactions. Most pattern variation is due to body size differences and only secondarily to sexual dimorphism. A hypothesis invoking differences in social system is proposed to explain the striking differences between these populations and those from Central Spain.

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Lacertids are the dominant group of lizards throughout the Mediterranean Basin. Their role in food web transfer of matter and energy from arthropods and other small invertebrates to birds and mammals constitutes a major function within Mediterranean ecosystems. For many years, prey consumption by lacertids was thought to be almost indiscriminate, not much more than a byproduct of habitat use. However, increasing evidence does not support this passive view. Analyses of prey availability have revealed active prey selection/avoidance in several species. Others show an internal tendency (i.e., historical constraints) to consume specific animal items (ants, clumped prey) or plant matter (seeds, nectar, pollen, leaves). Behavioural experiments showed that lacertids not only identify different prey types by both visual and chemical cues but also modify their feeding behaviour integrating past experiences. Furthermore, size, sex, reproductive state, body condition, tail loss and probably other lizard features are relevant for feeding ecology. However, less attention has been devoted to abiotic factors such as temperature and humidity. More experimental studies of the influences of competitors, predators and parasites on diet are needed. Even though it is controversial, optimal foraging theory provides a conceptual background for future studies. The evolutionary history of the various lacertid lineages, which constrains their morphology and physiology and eventually produces exaptative traits, is to be considered as well. Finally, methodology in field sampling, lab work and statistical analysis needs to be developed. Recommendations are given as to when and where to sample, which compartment should be analysed, which is the appropriate sample size, how to assess trophic availability, which statistical descriptors should be used and how they should be compared.

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Reproductive timing is one of the most critical issues for lacertids inhabiting temperate regions where favourable conditions are restricted seasonally. Cycles of gonads and associated lipid reserves represents the manifestation of the discontinuous reproductive mode. Although lacertids seem tom use both temperature and photoperiod to adjust their reproductive clocks to the environmental conditions, these cues seem to act at different stages of the cycle. Within species, interindividual, interpopulational and interannual variation have been documented. Thermal seasonality, changing between sites and years, determines not only the length of the reproductive season but also the intensity of variation for several reproductive parameters. Except in those species/populations with extremely short reproductive activity, lacertids are rather asynchronus, large adults starting reproduction later than small ones. In contrast, the end of the breeding period is less variable and probably associated with photoperiod. Prior to all these factors, lipid storage of excess energy is necessary condition for beginning reproduction. Lipids peak in late summer or early autumn, are not depleted in winter and are consumed during the reproductive season. Males spend reserves earlier than females in the activities related with breeding and recover them soon after since mixed-type spermatogenesis distributes energy costs along a prolonged period. Only spermiogenesis is highly variable in time depending on the species/population although previous classifications based on it are simplistic. Females mainly behave as capital breeders investing lipids in developing a first (or unique) clutch but may act as income breeders for the subsequent clutches if any. The degree of iteroparity depends on the same factors but just within the species limits. Some of the patterns observed are, nevertheless, uncorrelated with abiotic environment and may reflect other pressures. Theoretically any influence able to provoke food storage would delay reproduction independently of climate conditions. In some cases, traits could be historical deriving from pressures acting in the past. Long egg retention and viviparity are strong constraints since they prolong single reproductive events preventing its repetition even when environmental conditions would allow it. Moreover, thermophile species evolved under mild conditions are unable to start reproduction when and where other more cold-adapted species do. On the other hand, insular lacertids enlarge the reproductive period in comparison with their continental equivalents living under similar climate regimes but with different demographic pressures. Finally a biogeographic scenario for the evolution of reproductive cycles in the whole family is proposed.

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Variation in the reproductive cycle of two populations of Acanthodactylus erythrurus living in coastal sandy areas of the NE extreme of its range was analyzed. This species exhibits strong influence of historical factors in its reproductive traits: vernal spermatogenic cycle, short incubation, K-selection, and high egg size variation. The populations studied are more similar to others from the Mediterranean coast than to those from Central Spain. In comparison with the latter, reproductive season is longer, adult sizes are smaller and sexual dimorphism is reduced. A second clutch can be laid when the reproductive season is long enough. Nevertheless, phenology in this species is less variable than in other Mediterranean Lacertidae. Since no evidence of suboptimal conditions was found in any population, it is concluded that factors other than reproductive ones may have restricted the range of this species in NE Spain.

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The basic morphometry of two Mediterranean lacertid lizards, Psammodromus algirus and Acanthodactylus erythrurus, is analyzed using 133 and 87 specimens respectively. In both species, femoralia and ventralia are useful characters to distinguish sexes even in juveniles. Moreover, adult males and females show shape variation whose origin is discussed. Interspecific differences in shape and size are also showed and related to ecological features.

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The basic morphometry and its ecological correlates are analyzed in a lizard community consisting of three Mediterranean lacertid spccies (Psammodromus algirus, Acanthodactylus erythrurus and Podarcis hispanica) living in a coastal sandy area from NE Spain. Specimens studied were 156, 68 and 44 respectively. In the three species, femoralia and vcntralia arc useful characters to distinguish sexcs even in juveniles. Moreover, adult males and females show shape differences whose origin is discussed. The inter- and intraspecific variations found in shape and size agree reasonably well with the degree of ecological divergence between groups.

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Variation in the reproductive cycle of two populations of Acanthodactylus erythrurus living in coastal sandy areas of the NE extreme of its range was analyzed. This species exhibits strong influence of historical factors in its reproductive traits: vernal spermatogenic cycle, short incubation, K-selection, and high egg size variation. The populations studied are more similar to others from the Mediterranean coast than to those from Central Spain. In comparison with the latter, reproductive season is longer, adult sizes are smaller and sexual dimorphism is reduced. A second clutch can be laid when the reproductive season is long enough. Nevertheless, phenology in this species is less variable than in other Mediterranean Lacertidae. Since no evidence of suboptimal conditions was found in any population, it is concluded that factors other than reproductive ones may have restricted the range of this species in NE Spain.

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The variation in the reproductive cycle of three populations of the lizard Psammodromus algirus living in coastal sandy areas of NE Spain was analyzed. In contrast with those in continental climates, they showed evidence of reproductive stress: the reproductive season began sooner and was longer. Moreover, body size was smaller and sexual size dimorphism did not arise. Only the end of the breeding period was relatively constant. Nevertheless, these different reproductive traits seem to follow a common trend. In general, no important reproductive differences were found among the three coastal areas. Females laying two clutches have been detected in one locality. Clutch size was correlated with female size. The high phenological plasticity of this species is associated with its wide ecological niche.

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Acanthodactylus erythrurus, Psammodromus algirus.

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The cartography of all species of the Montseny Natural Park (NE Iberian), as well as the estimation of their relative abundance and conservation status were carried out in order to evaluate the reptile populations living there. Moreover, a simple, reproducible methodology for monitoring was performed for long-term monitoring. The geographic situation and ecological traits of Montseny Massif have produce a rich reptile fauna: 17 species (8 lizards and 9 snakes) from different origins inhabit the Park; 4 more live in their surroundings. None of them could be considered as endangered but three are rare. The monitoring method consist of normalized transects in three different habitats (evergreen oak forest, meadow and beech forest) and three seasons (srping, summer and autumn) calculating four descriptors: abundance, diversity, richness and eveness. During testing period, 44 transects were carried out and 276 reptiles belonging to 8 especies were detected. More individuals were observed in beech forests than in the other habitats but diversity was higher in meadows. The values of all four descriptors were higher in spring than in the rest of the year. Small lacertid lizards were the most abundant species; Podarcis hispanica was dominant in evergreen oak forests whereas P. muralis was the main species in beech forests. For following campaigns, increment of field effort and concentration in spring are recommended in order to assure detection of big, scarce species.

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he only Italian population of the lacertid Psammodromus algirus is found in Conigli islet whereas the species is absent from the nearby island of Lampedusa. The phylogeographic relationships of this population were investigated. Mitochondrial DNA (12S rRNA and 16S rRNA) fragment sequences were analysed and compared with already published sequences from the whole species range. In all the analyses, the sample from Conigli grouped with those from Morocco and not with the closer Tuni- sian ones. Such surprising result poses serious doubts to the traditional interpretation of the enigmatic distribution pattern of this species in Italy suggesting a recent colo- nisation of the islet from NW Africa, probably human-mediated, rather than a land crossing from Tunisia during the Pleistocene.

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We discuss three aspects of the thermal biology of lacertid lizards. First, we provide an overview of the available data on field body temperatures (Tb), the thermal sensitivity of various performance functions and selected body temperatures in different species of lacertid lizards. We also briefly summarise information on the mechanisms of thermoregulation. Second, we discuss recent developments to estimate the »precision« of thermoregulation, and the contribution of distinct behavioural mechanisms. Finally, we revise available evidence for the existence of evolutionary adjustments of thermal characteristics in lacertid lizards. Existing studies have mainly dealt with within- and among-species differences in thermoregulatory behaviour (selected temperatures) and thermal physiology of adults (optimal temperatures, heating rates). Available data provide only limited evidence for clear-cut evolutionary shifts in thermal physiology characteristics along climatic gradients.

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This study was carried out to evaluate the diversity in reptile communities in wetland landscapes located in the Mediterranean region. For this, the status of the reptile populations linked to different Mediterranean wetlands in relation to the different types of land use established in the nearby drainage basins (500 m around the wetlands perimeter) was determined. The different types of land use were determined together with the presence/absence, abundance and size class of the different reptile species. The results showed that areas with high anthropic pressure had a lower diversity of species, as well as a less balanced community structure, that could put at risk the effective recruitment and hence the maintenance of the reptile populations in these areas. The reasons behind the decline in the reptile community are similar to those put forward for explaining the decline in amphibians in the same area.

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Background: Human values and folklore of wildlife strongly influence the effectiveness of conservation efforts. These values and folklore may also vary with certain demographic characteristics such as gender, age, or education. Reptiles and amphibians are among the least appreciated of vertebrates and are victims of many negative values and wrong ideas resulting from the direct interpretation of folklore. We try to demonstrate how these values and folklore can affect the way people relate to them and also the possible conservation impacts on these animals. Methods: A questionnaire survey distributed to 514 people in the district of Évora, Portugal, was used to obtain data regarding the hypothesis that the existence of wrong ideas and negative values contributes to the phenomenon of human-associated persecution of these animals. A structural equation model was specified in order to confirm the hypothesis about the possible relationships between the presence of perceptions and negative values about amphibians and reptiles and persecution and anti-conservation attitudes. Sociodemographic variables were also added. Results: The results of the model suggest that the presence of folklore and negative values clearly predicts persecution and anti-conservation attitudes towards amphibians and reptiles. Also, the existence of folklore varies sociodemographically, but negative values concerning these animals are widespread in the population. Conclusions: With the use of structural equation models, this work is a contribution to the study of how certain ideas and values can directly influence human attitudes towards herpetofauna and how they can be a serious conservation issue.

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Fire is one of the main disturbances to terrestrial environments, transforming habitat structure and affecting community composition. Coupled with fire, forest type and vegetation structure modulate the taxonomic response to fire by ectotherm organisms such as reptiles. The response of each reptile species to fire is based on their functional attributes, which make some species resilient to fire and others vulnerable to that disturbance and only adapted to long-unburnt landscapes. We studied the functional response of a reptile community at 13 burnt sites within the African rim of the Western Mediterranean, and in two contrasting forest types, i.e. native cork oak forests (five sites) and pine plantations (eight sites). We compiled seven functional traits for the reptile species in the study areas, and quantified reptile functional diversity at each sampled plot. Variation in this index was examined from burnt to nearby unburnt plots, both in cork oak and pine forests, with generalized linear mixed models. Redundancy analysis was used to identify which functional traits were associated with particular plot types. We found 2149 individual reptiles from 15 species. The functional response of reptiles to fire was forest-type dependent: functional richness did not change with fire in cork oak forest plots, but increased with fire in the pine plantation ones. High reptile functional richness in cork oak plots was due to high species richness in this forest type. The functional-redundancy analysis showed that cork oak forest hosts a reptile community functionally composed of small Mediterranean ground- and rock-dwelling lizards. In pine plantation plots, however, saxicolous geckos and phytophagous tortoises indicate the availability of other microhabitat and food resources to be exploited by reptile species with different functional traits.

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Individual animals are assumed to gain possession of areas where they win fights or chases, while those that lose agonistic interactions leave areas where they were defeated. Thus, the more dominant animal secures the territory, often excluding subordinates from optimal habitat. This assumption forms the basis for concluding that the degree of aggressiveness or relative dominance of an individual may be important in determining the size or quality of a territory that it can secure. I examined in the field the relationships between home-range size, quality of home range, and degree of aggressiveness and their effects on survivorship in juvenile male lizards (Psammodromus algirus). The degree of aggressiveness was determined using tethered intruders presented to resident individuals in the field. The more aggressive individuals had larger home ranges than the less aggressive ones. Furthermore, home-range size and vegetative cover in the home range also influenced the probability of survival: survivors had larger home ranges, with a greater amount of vegetative cover, than nonsurvivors.

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In some species, more aggressive individuals are more successful in resource competition. High testosterone level is associated with increased activity and aggressive behavior, and this may have a direct effect on metabolic rate and cause an increase in energy expenditure. Here, I examined the influence of exogenously administered testosterone on aggressiveness and body growth in juvenile Psammodromus algirus male lizards. Juvenile males were given testosterone-filled (experimental) or empty (control) implants. Testosterone produced an increase in aggressiveness and activity in the experimental males. However, despite being more aggressive, experimental males did not acquire larger home ranges than control males. Experimental males also experienced a significant reduction in growth rate over the 2-month period following implantation. Experimental males also were in poorer condition at the completion of the experiment, compared to control males. These results suggest that although an elevated testosterone level may have positive effects on aggressiveness and activity, it also may have negative effects manifested as reduced growth rate and body condition.

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Theories posit that the relative mortality rate of adults and juveniles is a major determinant of population dynamics and life history evolution. Moreover, differential survival of pre-reproductive individuals may be an important source of variation in lifetime reproductive success, and characters that influence survival of juveniles are likely to be under strong selection. We examined survival from hatching to maturity in a natural population of Psammodromus algirus lizards using data from a capture-mark-recapture study. We found that mortality from hatching to maturity was high: only 8% of males and 14% of females that hatched in 1996 survived the entire study period until maturity in spring 1998. The probability of survival was 75% during both the first and second overwinter periods when lizards were inactive most of the time, and about 25% during their first spring to autumn activity season. Our analyses further revealed significant associations between survival and snout-vent length, body condition, sex and microhabitat use. However, the relationship between survival and morphological characters varied among time periods, presumably because the sources of mortality during the activity season were different from those during hibernation. The association between survival and body condition also varied within time periods, both between large and small individuals and between the two sexes. This suggests that the relative importance of different selective agents may change during the life of individuals and vary between males and females due to differences in body size and behaviour.

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Predation risk does not necessarily increase predation rates because prey may be able to behave differentially to cope with higher predation risk. However, antipredatory behaviors may be costly, leading to negative, although non-lethal, effects of predators on prey. We examined in outdoor enclosures whether an experimental increase in predation pressure, which did not increase direct mortality, but forced individuals to increase antipredatory behaviors, may have significant non-lethal effects on body growth and health state of juvenile lizards, Psammodromus algirus. Simulated persistent predator attacks resulted in slower rates of body size growth and body mass gain of juvenile lizards, which may greatly affect their future survival. However, juvenile lizards were able to maintain their initial body condition and immune response regardless of predation risk level. Moreover, our data suggested that experience of lizards with their home range “environment” might allow them to compensate the negative effects of temporal high predation risk on body condition when predation risk subsequently decreased. Finally, juvenile lizards with greater immune responses showed smaller increments in body size, but larger increments in body mass and body condition, at the end of the control treatment. In contrast, there was no relationship between immunity and growth after the experimental treatment.

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To examine factors related to overwinter survival of Psammodromus algirus hatchlings, we performed a capture-mark-recapture study of a cohort of hatchlings. In this work, we examine the effects of body size, vegetation structure of the home range, tail condition, sex, and estimated hatching date on hatchling survivorship to the next spring. Results of a logistic regression analysis showed that survival was associated with larger body size (SVL), higher cover, and earlier hatching date. Tail condition and sex were not associated with overwinter survivorship.

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Lizards prefer certain habitat in terms of their morphological traits. Lizard abundance is an important indicator of their habitat suitability. Besides, foraging and basking are important behaviours for lizards, which largely depend on the habitat types. Psammodromus (Psammodromus algirus) and Spanish psammodromus (Psammodromus hispanicus) mainly inhabit in the Iberian Peninsula. The gypsum deposits distribute throughout this region and small proportion of the area are sandy river valley. This research is implemented on the gypsum deposits and sandy river valley with different vegetation distribution. We would like to figure out the effect of diverse habitats on lizard abundance. It may be influential in population ecology as well as biodiversity of lizards and their habitat.

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may change their phenotype along the altitudinal gradient being adapted to the local conditions. Consequently, elevational gradients constitute a good model to examine geographic variation offering a natural experiment for carrying out research in evolutionary ecology. In this thesis, I carry out different approaches to study two lizard species along two elevational gradients in the Mediterranean region.On the one hand,I studythe Atlas day gecko Quedenfeldtia trachyblepharusin the High Atlas of Morocco. On the otherhand, I studythe large Psammodromus Psammodromus algirusin Sierra Nevadaof Spain. In the first chapter I study the Atlas day gecko trophic ecology.It is hypothesized that increased competition should reduce niche breadth. However, there are scarce field tests on this hypothesis. TheAtlas day geckofaces fewer competitors as altitude increases, and thereby, we predict that this species should increase niche breadth and relevant fitness parameters with altitude.We tested this prediction by analysingthe isotopic signature of carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N). Our results reveal that specimens from higher altitudes showed higher values for both carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotopes, had better body condition and a greater isotopic breadth when compared to specimens from lower altitudes. Altitudinal variation in carbon values was not explained by variation in isotopic concentration in the baseline of the trophic chain. Therefore, resultssupport the prediction that relaxed interspecific competition favours increased trophic niche breadth. These results also suggest that global warming may represent an important threat for this species, as it may provoke the ascent in altitude of competitors, with negative consequences for the conservation of this endemism. In the second chapter, I study the variation in probability and intensity of infestationof blood-sucking mites parasitizingthe Atlas day gecko depending on host body condition, sex, and elevation.Parasitism is one of the main selective forces in nature,strongly affecting host fitness. Still, knowledge is incomplete concerning how variation in probability and intensity of infestationdepends on body condition, sex or geographic variables. I found that mite prevalence was58.75% and probability of infestation decreased with hostbody condition.However, parasitism intensity tended to increase with body condition. The parasite load ranged from 0 to 16 mites per individual, with a mean intensity of 3.0 ± 0.37 (SE) in infested geckos.Prevalence was higher in males (2/3 parasitized) than in females (1/2 parasitized), but intensitydid not significantly differ with sex. Neither prevalence nor intensity varied with elevation. In conclusion, geckos in better body condition harboured heavier parasite loads, but animals with the highest body condition were not infested. These findings suggest that animals with goodbody condition may tolerate heavier mite infestations, but only animals with the highest body condition may resist infestation.In the third chapterIanalysehow lifespan and other life-history traits of the lizard large Psammodromus Psammodromus algirusvary along a 2,200 m elevational gradient in Sierra Nevada.Lifespan is one of the main components of life history. Shorter lifespans can be expected in marginal habitats. However, in the case of ectotherms, lifespan typically increases with altitude, even though temperature –one of the main factors to determine ectotherms’ life history–declines with elevation. This pattern can be explained by the fact that a shorter activity time favours survival. Populations at intermediate altitudes, corresponding to the optimal habitat for this species, had the shortest lifespans, while populations inhabiting marginal habitats (at both low and at high altitudes) lived longest. Therefore, this lizard did not follow the typical pattern of ectotherms, as it also lived longer at the lower limit of its distribution, nor did it show a longer lifespanin areas with optimal habitats. These results might be explained by a complex combination of different gradients along the mountain, namely that activity time decreases with altitude whereas food availability increases. This could explain why lifespan wasmaximum at both high (limited activity time) and low (limited food availability) altitudes, resulting in similar lifespans in areas with contrasting environmental conditions. This studyalso indicated that reproductive investment and body condition increase with elevation, suggesting that alpine populations are locally adapted. In the fourth chapterIinvestigate the role of life-history traits such as age, sex, body size, body condition, and tail autotomy (i.e self-amputation) in shaping telomere length of six populations of the large Psammodromus in Sierra Nevada. The timing of organisms’ senescence is developmentally programmed but also shaped by the interaction between environmental inputs and life-history traits. In ectotherms, ageing dynamics are still poorly understood despite their particularities concerning thermoregulation, regeneration capacity, or growth trajectory. Our cross-sectional study shows that older lizards have longer telomeres, which might be linked to a higher expression of telomerase across their life or caused by the selective disappearance of individuals with shorter telomeres. Variation in telomere across elevation was explained by age structure of lizards, thus altitude had no effect on the telomere length of lizards. In contrastto our predictions, telomere length was unaffected by tail autotomy, and was sex-independent, but positively correlated with body condition. Regarding the lack of impacts of elevation on telomeres of lizards, our results suggest that life-history traits such as age and body condition can be major drivers of telomere dynamics for this lizard, whereas environmental conditions apparently had scarce or no effects on their telomeres. Our findings emphasize the relevance of understanding species’ life histories and habitat characteristics for fully disentangling the causes and consequences of lifespan trajectory in ectotherms.

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Lifespan is one of the main components of life history. Shorter lifespans can be expected in marginal habitats. However, in the case of ectotherms, lifespan typically increases with altitude, even though temperature –one of the main factors to determine ectotherms’ life history– declines with elevation. This pattern can be explained by the fact that a shorter activity time favours survival. In the present study, we analysed how lifespan and other life-history traits of the lizard Psammodromus algirus vary along a 2,200 m elevational gradient in Sierra Nevada (SE Spain). Populations at intermediate altitudes (1,200–1,700 m), corresponding to the optimal habitat for this species, had the shortest lifespans, while populations inhabiting marginal habitats (at both low and at high altitudes) lived longest. Therefore, this lizard did not follow the typical pattern of ectotherms, as it also lived longer at the lower limit of its distribution, nor did it show a longer lifespan in areas with optimal habitats. These results might be explained by a complex combination of different gradients along the mountain, namely that activity time decreases with altitude whereas food availability increases. This could explain why lifespan was maximum at both high (limited activity time) and low (limited food availability) altitudes, resulting in similar lifespans in areas with contrasting environmental conditions. Our findings also indicated that reproductive investment and body condition increase with elevation, suggesting that alpine populations are locally adapted.

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One of Darwin`s most widely known conjectures is that prey are tame on remote islands, where mammalian predators are absent. Many species appear to permit close approach on such islands, but no comparative studies have demonstrated reduced wariness quantified as flight initiation distance (FID; i.e. predator–prey distance when the prey begins to flee) in comparison with mainland relatives. We used the phylogenetic comparative method to assess influence of distance from the mainland and island area on FID of 66 lizard species. Because body size and predator approach speed affect predation risk, we included these as independent variables. Multiple regression showed that FID decreases as distance from mainland increases and is shorter in island than mainland populations. Although FID increased as area increased in some models, collinearity made it difficult to separate effects of area from distance and island occupancy. FID increases as SVL increases and approach speed increases; these effects are statistically independent of effects of distance to mainland and island occupancy. Ordinary least-squares models fit the data better than phylogenetic regressions, indicating little or no phylogenetic signal in residual FID after accounting for the independent variables. Our results demonstrate that island tameness is a real phenomenon in lizards.

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The present article covers 20 years of field work by the authors. It provides data of 26 species of amphibians and reptiles, located in the southern sector of Catalonia (northeastern Spain), many of them in quadrants UTM 10 x 10, which had not been previously cited.

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Studies on the herpetofauna of Tunisia’s numerous islands and islets began in 2000 thanks to targeted research programs. The data collected were compared and merged with others reported in the literature, thus obtaining an updated and detailed checklist of the Amphibians and Reptiles present on the Tunisian islands.

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Dans ce (ravail nous faisons une synthese de quelques données que nous avons obtenu sur la distribution et I`écologie de I`herpétofaune portugaise. Naus faisons aussi référence à la fréquence de capture de ces animaux pendan! les différents mois de I`année et à leur occurrence dans les principales montagnes du pays.

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La présente étude vient apporter les premières données faunistiques et écologiques sur les amphibiens et reptiles en Kabylie de la Soummam, région dont, à notre connaissance, aucune étude n’a été consacrée à ce sujet auparavant. Le travail de terrain s’est étalé du début avril à fin juin 2006, en suivant un protocole d’échantillonnage par stations au niveau des principales zones humides de la région (cours d’eau permanents et mares temporaires) ainsi que de quelques milieux terrestres. Un total de 6 espèces d’amphibiens et 17 espèces de reptiles a été identifié dans la région. Les données recueillies sur le peuplement herpétologique et le milieu ont fait l’objet d’une discussion autour des aspects faunistiques, biogéographiques et écologiques de l’herpétofaune de la zone étudiée et dégager quelques pistes de recherche à développer dans l’avenir.

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The present work is an analysis of the afferent projections to the thalamic nucleus rotundus in a lizard, both at the light- and electron-microscopic level, using biotinylated dextran amine (BDA) as a neuroanatomical tracer. This study has confirmed previously reported afferent projections to nucleus rotundus in reptiles and has also identified a number of new cellular aggregates projecting to this dorsal thalamic nucleus. After BDA injections into nucleus rotundus, retrogradely labelled neurons were observed consistently within the following neuronal groups in the midbrain and the diencephalon: (i) the stratum griseum centrale of the optic tectum; (ii) the nucleus subpretectalis in the pretectum; (iii) the nucleus ansa lenticularis posterior, the posterior nucleus of the ventral supraoptic commissure, and the posteroventral nucleus, in the dorsal thalamus and (iv) the lateral suprachiasmatic nucleus and part of the reticular complex in the ventral thalamus. Tectal axons entering nucleus rotundus were fine and varicose and formed exclusively asymmetric synaptic contacts, mainly on small dendritic profiles. Rotundal neurons had symmetric synapses made by large boutons probably of nontectal origin. After comparing our results with those in other reptiles, birds and mammals, we propose that the sauropsidian nucleus rotundus forms part of a visual tectofugal pathway that conveys mesencephalic visual information to the striatum and dorsal ventricular ridge, and is similar to the mammalian colliculo-posterior/intralaminar–striatoamygdaloid pathway, the function of which may be to participate in visually guided behaviour.

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This work is a study of the distribution pattern of calbindin-D28k, calretinin, and parvalbumin in the diencephalic alar plate of a reptile, the lizard Psammodromus algirus, by using the prosomeric model (Puelles [1995] Brain Behav Evol 46:319–337), which divides the alar plate of the diencephalon into the caudorostrally arranged pretectum (p1), dorsal thalamus plus epithalamus (p2), and ventral thalamus (p3). Calbindin and calretinin are more extensively expressed in the dorsal thalamus than in the neighboring alar regions, and therefore these calcium-binding proteins are particularly suitable markers for delimiting the dorsal thalamus/epithalamus complex from the ventral thalamus and the pretectum. Conversely, parvalbumin is more intensely expressed in the pretectum and ventral thalamus than in the dorsal thalamus/epithalamus complex. Within the dorsal thalamus, calciumbinding protein immunoreactivity reveals a three-tiered division. The pretectum displays the most intense expression of parvalbumin within the diencephalon. Virtually all nuclei in the three sectors of the pretectum (commissural, juxtacommissural, and precommissural) present strong to moderate expression of parvalbumin. We compare the distribution of calcium-binding proteins in the diencephalon of Psammodromus with other vertebrates, with mammals in particular, and suggest that the middle and ventral tiers of the reptilian dorsal thalamus may be comparable to nonspecific or plurimodal posterior/intralaminar thalamic nuclei in mammals, on the basis of the calcium-binding protein expression patterns, as well as the hodological and embryological data in the literature.

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Lizards and Eleonora’s falcon occur on many Mediterranean islets. Data given in literature and new observations concerning their asymmetrical interactions, which have been reviewed and illustrated, allow to regard those as a commensal relationship typical on these micro-insular ecosystems. Some considerations on the ecological, ecomorphological and phenological traits involved on this commensalism are also briefly discussed.

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The comparison of gene expression patterns in the embryonic brain of mouse and chicken is being essential for understanding pallial organization. However, the scarcity of gene expression data in reptiles, crucial for understanding evolution, makes it difficult to identify homologues of pallial divisions in different amniotes. We cloned and analyzed the expression of the genes Emx1, Lhx2, Lhx9, and Tbr1 in the embryonic telencephalon of the lacertid lizard Psammodromus algirus. The comparative expression patterns of these genes, critical for pallial development, are better understood when using a recently proposed six‐part model of pallial divisions. The lizard medial pallium, expressing all genes, includes the medial and dorsomedial cortices, and the majority of the dorsal cortex, except the region of the lateral cortical superposition. The latter is rich in Lhx9 expression, being excluded as a candidate of dorsal or lateral pallia, and may belong to a distinct dorsolateral pallium, which extends from rostral to caudal levels. Thus, the neocortex homolog cannot be found in the classical reptilian dorsal cortex, but perhaps in a small Emx1‐expressing/Lhx9‐negative area at the front of the telencephalon, resembling the avian hyperpallium. The ventral pallium, expressing Lhx9, but not Emx1, gives rise to the dorsal ventricular ridge and appears comparable to the avian nidopallium. We also identified a distinct ventrocaudal pallial sector comparable to the avian arcopallium and to part of the mammalian pallial amygdala. These data open new venues for understanding the organization and evolution of the pallium.

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The diet of the lizard Psammodromus algirus was studied on the small Isola dei Conigli, near Lampedusa, Sicily. A comparison is made with the diet of the population studied by Mellado (1975) in the South of Spain. Both plant and animal remains were found in the fecal pellets of the Isola dei Conigli lizards, contrary to what has been found in Spain. Ants, beetles and spiders were the princ pal animal prey

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1. I studied the thermoregulatory behaviour of the diurnal basker Psammodromus algirus (Reptilia, Lacertidae) in the mosaic of sunshade patches of a Mediterranean evergreen forest. 48 behavioural sequences associated with measurements of the thermal environment provided data on the percentages of time spent basking by focal animals, the duration of individual basking periods and the frequency of basking. 2. The percentage of time basking decreased linearly from the onset of the activity period until midday. The average duration of basking periods had a pronounced decrease after 0700 h and remained constant throughout the rest of the morning, whereas the basking rates, that were minimal before 0700 h, reached a peak between 0700 and 0800 h followed by a progressive fall that continued until noon. 3. In order to explain these behavioural patterns, I experimentally determined the effects of environmental variables (air and ground temperature and solar angle) on the heating and cooling rates of captive lizards. The resulting regression models were then used to predict the heat exchange rates of the observed free-ranging animals. 4. The moment at which heating rates should equal and then exceed cooling rates, appeared to set off the behavioural shift towards a larger frequency of shorter basking periods. Under these circumstances, the apparently random movement of a shuttling heliotherm with respect to sun and shade might still be of thermoregulatory significance.

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I studied the distribution of the heliothermic lizard Psammodromus algirus around the shrubs of a Mediterranean open forest. Observations were classified according to the compass direction of the sector of the shrub patch used by lizards (N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, or NW). The distribution of lizards around shrub patches was clearly selective and varied markedly with time of day. The frequency with which lizards were found in different positions around shrubs was negatively related to the average distance between shrub edge and nearest available sunlit perch; the shrub sectors preferred were always those in the direction of the sun, so that behavioral thermoregulation could be performed with little movement and risk. In the morning and in the afternoon, basking lizards remained closer to vegetation than expected by the availability of sunlit perches. Individual lizards known to have survived an entire activity season used sun-directed shrub sectors more frequently than their conspecifics that emigrated or died. /// Se ha estudiado la distribución primaveral del lacértido heliotermo Psammodromus algirus en torno a las manchas de vegetación de un encinar mediterráneo. Las observaciones se clasificaron en ocho posibles sectores angulares en torno al perímetro de los arbustos (N, NE, E, SE, S, SO, O ó NO). La distribución de las lagartijas resultó ser claramente selectiva y variar marcadamente con el período horario. El número de animales soleándose en cada orientación se correlacionó inversamente con la distancia media al parche soleado más próximo medida en diez arbustos seleccionados al azar; las orientaciones preferidas fueron por tanto las situadas en la dirección del sol, lo que permite desarrollar la termorregulación comportamental minimizando los movimientos y riesgos asociados. Por la mañana y por la tarde, las lagartijas se expusieron al sol más cerca de los arbustos de lo que cabría esperar considerando la accesibilidad media de las áreas soleadas. Los individuos marcados que sobrevivieron toda una estación de actividad hicieron uso de las orientaciones en la dirección del sol con mayor frecuencia que sus congéneres desaparecidos.

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I studies the activity, spacing patterns, courtship behavior, and survival of males (classified into two groups into two groups according to the development of the sexual coloration of the head) and females from a population of the lacertid lizard Psammodromus algirus. Brightly colored (C +) males were significantly larger (and probably older) than dull-colored (C -) males, but aspects of behavior differed between study years. In 1989, C + males had larger home ranges, were more active, overlapped with more females, and courted females more frequently tha C – males. In 1990, none of these traits differed between the two categories of males. The variables associated with survival were different in the two sexes. Larger and more active males survived less well than smaller and less active ones, whereas survival of females was related to the fact that the times when they were observed were later in the day. Higher mortality rates could have been doe to a higher predation risk affecting animals that were active on more days or under less favorable conditions. I postulate that the increased activity of males (mainly category C + in years favoring stronger selection) would increase their short-therm reproductive success but negatively affect their survival.

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The thermal dependence of predation success in the Mediterranean lacertid lizard Psammodromus algirus was studied using two types of prey (winged and wingless flies) that differed in their ability to escape predation at all T(b)S (body temperatures) tested (25-27-degrees-C, 29-32-degrees-C, and 34-37-degrees-C). Both number of failures and handling time decreased significantly at higher T(b)S, and capture success was much higher for wingless flies; in fact, low T(b)S were associated with a significant increase in capture success only in the case of winged flies. At low T(b)S, winged flies could be efficiently seized by lizards only if pursued from a short distance. The attack distance was therefore larger for the less mobile (and less detectable) wingless flies at low T(b)S, which suggests a trade-off between attack distance and capture success under conditions of impaired locomotor performance. Results of this study show that the escape abilities of prey are crucial to evaluate the effects of temperature on the performance of reptiles as predators

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1. Although thermal factors are of paramount importance to the quality of the habitats occupied by small ectotherms (e.g. lizards), the hypothesis that the relative abundance of squamate populations is related to the thermal quality of their habitats remains untested. If differences in the availability of thermally suitable microhabitats was the primary determinant of the overall quality of a lizard’s habitat, population density in a habitat should be proportional to its thermal quality. 2. The influence of the thermal quality of a habitat on thermoregulatory behaviour, body temperatures, expected physiological performance and relative abundance was compared in two populations of the temperate lizard Psammodromus algirus separated by 700 m altitude in central Spain. Habitat thermal quality was estimated with an index of how closely the available operative temperatures in a habitat match the range of body temperatures that lizards attempt to maintain in a laboratory thermogradient (Hertz, Huey & Stevenson 1993). 3. Operative temperatures, measured using copper models, were higher at the lowland site, where a large proportion of readings fell within or above the preferred range, especially in the early morning. Thermal habitat quality was also higher at the low altitude site, with smaller absolute deviations from the preferred range throughout most of the morning hours. Moreover, lizard body temperatures, the accuracy of thermoregulation and the predicted running performance of lizards were somewhat higher at the lowland site, although differences were smaller than expected on the basis of operative temperatures. A log-linear analysis showed that lizard selectivity for basking sites was more pronounced at the thermally inferior montane site. Thus, the observed differences in the thermal quality of habitats appeared to influence the behaviour of lizards. 4. Nevertheless, the relative abundance of lizards, as estimated by repeated transect counts, was higher at the montane site. This unexpected result suggests that thermal constraints may not be the most important factor determining lizard population densities on a regional scale. Alternatively, food availability and/or predation pressure might have a greater impact on the overall quality of a habitat for temperate lizards.

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We studied the seasonal variations of reproductive characteristics in a wild population of the lacertid lizard Psammodromus algirus by measuring gonadal weight, germinal epithelium height, sexual steroids (testosterone, estradiol, and progesterone), and lipid reserves (in fat bodies and liver) in three phases of the reproductive cycle: early breeding (late April), late breeding (mid-June), and post-breeding season (late July). In males, testis size, germinal epithelium, and testosterone plasma levels were high in the breeding season and decreased dramatically in July. However, spermatogenesis (maximum in June) was slightly delayed with respect to testosterone secretion (peak in April), suggesting that a previous increase in testosterone levels could be necessary to stimulate the initial stages of spermatogenesis. Larger testes and higher testosterone levels were found in larger and more brightly colored males, known to overlap with more females and court them more frequently than their smaller conspecifics. In females, the ovary was previtellogenic in early spring, and showed a rapid growth by mid-June, oviposition occurring in early summer. The increase in 17 β-estradiol levels observed between April and June was coincident with the maturation of previtellogenic follicles. In both sexes fat body cycles were inversely correlated with gonadal cycles. By the end of the breeding season there was a reactivation of hepatic lipogenesis that was coincident with a significant decrease in activity levels.

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It is well known that lizard species from thermally diverse areas differ in their use of thermoregulatory behaviors as a means of making short-term adjustments to differences in ambient conditions. In contrast, the extent of long-term adjustments in thermal physiology is poorly documented and still under debate. In this study we report a clear interspecific relationship between heating rates, measured under standardized laboratory conditions, and environmental temperatures within a small clade of lacertid lizards. Phylogenetically based ANCOVAs demonstrate that species with a northern or montane distribution warm at a faster mass-specific rate than do species from a southern (Mediterranean) climatic zone. Correlational analyses, using phylogenetically independent contrasts, confirm that continuous among-species variation in mass-specific heating rates is negatively related to clinal differences in environmental temperatures. A reduction of the time spent warming, associated with higher heating rates, should be especially advantageous for lizards from cool climates, which bask for large amounts of time. Thus, the observed relation between heating rates and climatic conditions could be a result of adaptive evolution. The behaviorally selected preferred temperatures were lower, but not significantly so, in the northern or montane species set; interspecific correlations with ambient temperatures were positive but not significant. However, the divergence of heating rates and the statistically nonsignificant difference in preferred temperatures have similar impacts on variation in the estimated amount of time spent heating. Thus, differences in both heating rate, a physiological trait, and preferred temperature, a behavioral characteristic, contribute equally to variation in heating times.

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We studied the thermal consequences of microhabitat selection by Psammodromus algirus lizards by combining data on the frequency of use and relative availability of three different types of microhabitats, with information about the environmental operative temperatures, and their deviations from the lizards` selected thermal range, available in these microhabitats. In both seasons, lizards preferred holm oak shrubs and avoided rockrose shrubs and open areas. However, the thermal suitability of holm oaks was highest in July but lowest in May. We suggest that microhabitat preferences were more related to other aspects of lizard ecology (e.g. antipredator behaviour) than to thermal requirements.

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1. We studied seasonal changes in the thermoregulatory behaviour of the lacertid lizard Psammodroums algirus in a Mediterranean evergreen forest. Body temperatures (Tb), environmental operative temperatures (Te) and upper and lower limits of the selected thermal range (Tsel) were lower in May than in July. 2. On average, mean deviations of Tb from Tsel (0·7 °C in both seasons) were much smaller than those of Te (8·3 °C in both seasons). Thus both the accuracy (average dif- ference between Tb and Tsel) and effectiveness (the extent to which Tb are closer than Te to Tsel) of thermoregulation were high, and similar in both seasons. 3. However the thermoregulatory contribution of two distinct behavioural mech- anisms varied markedly between seasons. Daily activity contributed significantly to the regulation of Tb in May (when a population of Te thermometers matching lizard activ- ity patterns would be, on average, 1·0 °C closer to Tsel than were randomly available Te), but not in July (when such a population would be only 0·2 °C closer to Tsel than were randomly available Te). The selection of sun–shade patches, the contribution of which was larger than that of daily activity in both seasons, was more important in July (when it produced a distribution of Te that would be, on average, 3·1 °C closer to Tsel than were randomly distributed Te) than in May (when a population of thermometers matching the lizards’ pattern of exposure to sunlight would be 1·3 °C closer to Tsel than were ran- domly available Te). 4. Thesechangesarediscussedinthelightofseasonaldifferencesinthedailypatternsof among-patch variation in Te. In spring, lizard activity was low in the early morning because even the selection of sunlit patches was of limited utility to attain Tb within Tsel; in summer, lizards could remain active at midday, despite low overall thermal suitability, by selecting shaded patches. Thus the contribution of patch selection to thermoregulation was important in the early basking period of both seasons, and at summer midday hours. 5. Our data suggest that shuttling between sun and shade, rather than selecting sun or shade, may be an additional mechanism of behavioural thermoregulation, the importance of which would be greatest at times of day when lizards use patches at random (e.g. spring midday hours), and that their mean Tb is closer to the grand mean of full sun and full shade Te than to the mean equilibrium Te within any type of patch.

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This study reports the population responses of the lizard Psammodromus algirus to forest fragmentation by comparing its distribution in two contrasting situations of habitat conservation: a well connected mosaic landscape (forest patches larger than 2000 ha and/or connected by corridors that prevent their isolation), and an archipelago of forest remnants embedded within a matrix of cereal fields. The frequency of occurrence of P. algirus was larger in the unfragmented habitats (14 out of 19 censused plots) than in the fragments (two out of of 21 wood-lots). Vegetation structure was a good predictor of lizard occurrence under conditions of no fragmentation, but not in the fragments, where high plant cover seemed a necessary, but insufficient, condition for the survival of lizard populations, and where remnant size was the only variable that differed significantly between wood-lots with and without lizards. Historical fragmentation of the habitat is also crucial for understanding the current distribution of lizards, as shown by their absence from a large forest that was highly fragmented in the past but which has been regenerating for decades. It is hypothesized that the combined effects of fragmentation and predation in small remnants have led to the extinction of P. algirus in fragments smaller than c. 90 ha, recolonization being prevented by the very limited dispersal abilities of these forest lizards.

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The summer diet of the lacertid lizard Psammodromus algirus and the availability of potential prey were compared at a Mediterranean evergreen woodland in central Iberia. Prey size proved to be the main factor implied in the selection of both prey taxa and individual prey items: lizards were selective in the sizes of the arthropods they captured, their selectivity for different prey types was related to the mean volume of these types, and they tended to capture only the larger items when feeding from the smaller prey types. We conclude that lizards did not assess the taxonomic identity of arthropods but rather relied on prey size in their responses to food availability.

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We studies the distribution of a common Mediterranean lacertid lizard, Psammodromus algirus (L.) 1758, on ninteen sites within a regional gradient of homogeneous yet contrasted habitats. This scale was large enough to allow line-transect estimates of lizard abundance, which were related to quantitative (and when possible multivariate) measurements of the structure and floristic composition of vegetation, the abundance of arthropod prey, the relative density of other lizard species, and the climatic data obtained from nearly meteorological stations. Neither the climate not the abundance of other lizards seemed to condition the quantitative distribution of the species. The positive influence of broad-leaved forests on the abundance of P. algirus appeared to be a consequence of structure attributes more directly related to the ecology of lizards than floristic composition per se. Thus, population levels were most highly correlated with the cover of shrubs over 20 cm in height, and once this structural requirements was met, they increased with the abundance of potential prey (itself conditioned by vegetation cover at the ground level and litter cover). We suggest that our results should be interpreted in the context of thermoregulatory, predator avoidance and movement minimization strategies whose influence on survival, and hence abundance, could probably be applied to other insectivorous lizards from temperate zones.

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Maximizing the average rate of energy intake (profitability) may not always be the optimal foraging strategy for ectotherms with relatively low energy requirements. To test this hypothesis, we studied the feeding behaviour of captive insectivorous lizards Psammodromus algirus, and we obtained experimental estimates of prey mass, handling time, profitability, and attack distance for several types of prey. Handling time increased linearly with prey mass and differed significantly among prey types when prey size differences were controlled for, and mean profitabilities differed among prey taxa, but profitability was independent of prey size. The attack distance increased with prey length and with the mobility of prey, but it was unrelated to profitability. Thus, lizards did not seem to take account of the rate of energy intake per second as a proximate cue eliciting predatory behavior. This information was combined with pitfall-trap censuses of prey (in late April, mid-June and late July) that allowed us to compare the mass of the prey captured in the environment with that of the arthropods found in the stomachs of sacrificed free-living lizards. In April, when food abundance was low and lizards were reproducing, profitability had a pronounced effect on size selection and lizards selected prey larger than average from all taxa except the least profitable ones. As the active season progressed, and with a higher availability of food, the number of prey per stomach decreased and their mean ize increased. The effect of profitability on size selection decreased (June) and eventually vanished (July–August). This variation is probably related to seasonal changes in the ecology of lizards, e.g. time minimization in the breeding season as a means of saving time for nonforaging activities versus movement minimization by selecting fewer (but larger) prey in the postbreeding season. Thus, the hypothesis that maximizing profitability could be just an optional strategy for a terrestrial ectothermic vertebrate was supported by our data.

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1. We compared the mean, limits and breadth of the preferred thermal range (PTR) of two Iberian populations of the lizard Psammodromus algirus separated by 700m altitude in May and July. 2. Seasonality had a pronounced effect on the mean and limits of PTR, but altitude and sex did not. The breadth of PTR remained constant between seasons. 3. The observed seasonal shift in PTR facilitated thermoregulation in May but not in July. 4. The location, breadth, and seasonal shift of PTR may be a result of the neurohormonal effects of the photoperiod and the functional implications of body temperature for muscle-contraction speed.

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Widely distributed terrestrial ectotherms from the southern European peninsulas show patterns of subdivision (related to isolation in temperate refugia) that allow us to test the relative importance of phylogeographic lineage, population of origin and familial effects as sources of variation for life-history traits. We collected gravid females from 15 geographically separated populations of the lacertid lizard Psammodromus algirus, a widely distributed species with well differentiated eastern and western lineages. We incubated eggs under two treatments of constant (28°C) and fluctuating (28 ± 4°C) temperature, and we examined clutch, population, and lineage effects on several traits of females, eggs, and hatchlings. Incubation time was mainly explained by differences between lineages, but it was also influenced by population and female effects. Within each lineage, incubation was shorter at cooler and wetter sites, and for a given climate it was shorter for eastern than for western populations, suggesting that countergradient variation has evolved independently in the two lineages. Female size, clutch size, and relative fecundity were primarily influenced by inter-population differences, a pattern that seemed attributable to environmental differences in productivity, because mean female size was positively correlated with a gradient of increasing precipitation and decreasing temperature. Clutch size was mainly, but not entirely, dependent on female SVL, suggesting both a proximate effect of local conditions and intrinsic differences among populations. Females from drier and warmer sites produced larger hatchlings. Mean egg mass was mainly determined by familial effects. Eggs incubated at a constant temperature hatched earlier than did their siblings incubated at fluctuating temperatures, a fact that could be explained by considering that in Mediterranean environments developmental rate might increase at a lower speed above average incubation temperature than it does decrease below it.

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1. Although the effects of global warming on thermoregulation are usually ex-plored using predictions of climate envelop modelling, such effects should best be analysed empirically, studying the same population with the same methods after a long enough period of temperature rise.2. We used a 30-year long database about body temperatures (Tbs) of field-active Psammodromus algirus lizards inhabiting a well-conserved temperate open for-est, and we focused on the summers of 1997 and 2017 to compare Tbs, envi-ronmental operative temperatures (Tes), their proximity to the selected thermal range (Tsel), and the selection of sunlit and shaded patches all along the day. From these data, we estimated the precision (standard deviation of Tbs), accuracy (av-erage distance between Tbs and Tsel) and effectiveness (extent to which Tbs are closer to Tsel than Tes) of thermoregulation.3. Of the highest 5% of all Tbs in the database, 95% were recorded in 2017, when the adjustment to Tsel was much better for Tbs selected in a laboratory ther-mogradient than for field Tbs (percentages of Tbs above Tsel of 2% and 52% respectively).4. In 2017, especially after 12:00 h, the selection of shaded patches (87% of lizards in full shade vs. <1% in full sun) was more intense than in 1997, contributed more to overall thermoregulation, and produced a larger difference between Tes and Tbs. In spite of this, Tbs were lower—and closer to Tsel— in 1997 (when most shaded patches offered favourable thermal opportunities, with Tes within or below Tsel) than in 2017 (when only 33% of full shade Tes, and 8% of all Tes, were within or below Tsel). As a consequence, estimates of the accuracy and ef-fectiveness of thermoregulation decreased over the 20-year period examined.5. We conclude that given the low availability of Tes within or below Tsel, lizards cannot longer prevent the rise of their Tbs above Tsel, at least in hot summer days. Thus, the effects of global warming are already hindering the ability of lizards to buffer environmental change by behavioural means, even in temperate forests with a fine- grained mosaic of sun and shade patches.

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The range boundaries of organisms are frequently interpreted in terms of a decline in the extent to which the life histories of outer populations are able to adapt to local environmental conditions. To test this hypothesis, we compared the reproductive characteristics of two Iberian populations of the lizard Psammodromus algirus (Linnaeus, 1758). One of them (Lerma) is close to the northern edge of the species’ range, whereas the other one (El Pardo) occupies a typical core habitat 200 km further south. Gravid females were captured in the field and transported to the lab for egg laying. Second clutches were less frequent at Lerma (where clutch size and clutch mass were larger for first than for second clutches) than at El Pardo. The total mass of both clutches combined was similar at both sites. Thus, the higher frequency of second clutches at El Pardo appeared to balance the between-sites difference in energy allocation to the first clutch. Females from Lerma laid more but smaller eggs than those from El Pardo. When incubated at the same temperature, eggs from Lerma hatched sooner even when controlling for between-sites differences in mean egg size. These differences are interpreted in the light of the advantages of early hatching and high fecundity in the northern population, as opposed to large offspring size in the core population. We conclude that the life-history traits studied show enough variation, presumably of an adaptive nature, to cope with environmental challenges at the edge of the species’ range.

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Aim: We examined dorsal coloration in and genetic relationships among Iberian populations of the lizard Psammodromus algirus to determine the extent to which the current distribution of phenotypic variation is correlated with phylogeographical history or local environmental conditions. -- Location: Iberian Peninsula, western Palaearctic. -- Methods: We sequenced mitochondrial DNA (ND4 and adjacent tRNAs genes) in 36 populations, and seven microsatellite loci in eight representative populations. In 23 populations, lizards were classified according to the presence and intensity of a dorsal striped pattern, the heritability of which was estimated by means of mother–offspring regressions. To determine whether colour pattern is an adaptation for crypsis, we compared the time taken by humans to detect striped and unstriped lizards in different environments. -- Results: The analysis of mtDNA revealed an ancient split between a western clade, subdivided into south- and north-western haplogroups, and an eastern clade with central, south-eastern and eastern haplogroups. In contrast, nuclear markers showed a post-glacial admixture of central and western haplogroups, with the central haplogroup apparently isolated from the rest of its clade. This was consistent with variation in the dorsal striped pattern, a heritable phenotypic trait: central and western lizards were unstriped, whereas eastern lizards were striped. We then suggest that dorsal coloration promotes crypsis: in eastern locations detection times were longer for striped than for unstriped lizards, whereas the opposite was true in western and central locations. Main conclusions Our results indicate that natural selection for crypsis may promote not only divergence within clades, as suggested by the apparent isolation between unstriped central lizards and striped members of eastern haplogroups, but also admixture between them. We conclude that ecologically driven selection is crucial for understanding the phylogeographical background of phenotypic variation, because recent adaptation to the environment can blur the effects of ancestral isolation.

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There are many factors affecting population dynamics, both abiotic and biotic. One of the most important biotic factors affecting different ecological aspects of a species is competition. But there is relatively little research focussing on the effect of competition on population dynamics. Thus, we studied population dynamics of three insectivorous lizard species (Acanthodactylus erythrurus, Psammodromus algirus and Psammodromus edwardsianus) which cohabit in our study area. We carried out periodic censuses and samplings during 2015 and 2017. Our results seem to confirm that a high level of competition can alter some aspects of population dynamics. Also body size seems to play a role, as most adjustments we detected were related to small size classes and the most affected species was P. edwardsianus. Some possible responses to competition we detected were an advance of the reproduction period, increased growth rates and biasing the sex ratio notably towards males (as higher testosterone levels lead to more aggression and this improves success rates in interspecific encounters). However, our study area is highly anthropized and further research is needed to discern if these adjustments are really exclusively related to competition or if human disturbance also plays a role.

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Trophic ecology is one of the most important aspects of a species’ ecology and it is crucial when trying to assess how different species interact in an ecosystem. Showing how the diet intraspecifically changes in different body sizes, sexes or habitats and how trophic resources are shared interspecifically allows to understand how the ecosystem functions. With this objective, we studied the diet and trophic ecology of Acanthodactylus erythrurus, Psammodromus algirus and Psammodromus edwardsianus, which are in syntropy in the Albufera de Valencia Natural Park. We collected a total of 485 faecal samples and could identify 18 different prey groups. The main prey groups in A. erythrurus were Hymenoptera, Coleoptera and Hemiptera; in P. algirus, Lepidoptera, Arachnida, Coleoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera and Orthoptera; and in P. edwardsianus, Coleoptera, Hemiptera and Arachnida. Our results show that A. erythrurus seems to be the most specialized species, having the lowest values of trophic niche amplitude and the lowest intraspecific diet variation. Although this species is known to feed mainly on ants, our results indicate that mirmecophagy seems to be especially important in juveniles. Indeed we observed in all three species a niche separation between small and big individuals, indicating that diet changes with age. We could also evidence a resource partitioning between A. erythrurus and P. algirus, presenting a niche overlap of only 51.6%. In conclusion, there are various factors playing together shaping the diet of a species in a certain environment: behavioural, ecological, environmental and physiological factors.

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To investigate the reservoir role of the lizard Psammodromus algirus for the Lyme disease spirochete, 199 lizards were trapped from April to October 2003 in El Jouza, northwestern Tunisia. In this site, the infection rate of free-living Ixodes ricinus (L.) by Borrelia was evaluated by immunofluorescence as 34.6% for adult ticks and 12.5% for nymphs. Eighty percent of P. algirus (117/146) captured during this study were infested by I. ricinus, the predominant tick species collected from lizards. The intensity of tick infestation of this host by larvae and nymphs ranged from 0.14 to 7.07 and from 1.5 to 6.58, respectively. These immature stages of I. ricinus were found on lizards in spring and the beginning of summer, with a peak of intensity during June (10.16 immature ticks by lizard). Tissue cultures from lizards and xenodiagnosis with larval I. ricinus were used to assess the infection and the ability, respectively, of infected lizards to transmit Borrelia to naive ticks. Seventeen percent of xenodiagnostic ticks (40/229) acquired B. lusitaniae while feeding on P. algirus. Therefore, we demonstrated the ability of the lizards to sustain Borrelia infection and to infect attached ticks, and we proved that P. algirus is a reservoir host competent to transmit B. lusitaniae.

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Reptiles are a successful group in subtropical arid regions. However, little is known about the drivers that influence the diversity of arid reptile communities. One approach is to investigate the variation in phylogenetic structure of the communities along a broad environmental gradient. In this study, I investigated these patterns in the communities of lacertids at the periphery of the Sahara Desert in Tunisia. The effect of the environment was assessed based on a set of variables describing the climate, topography, substrate and cover of perennial vegetation. The phylogenetic alpha diversity was described using the mean pairwise distance (MPD) and the mean nearest taxon distance (NTD) metrics. The analyses showed that the lacertid species could be clustered into three main ecological groups: mesic (Podarcis vaucheri, Psammodromus algirus, Psammodromus blanci, Timon pater), xeric (Acanthodactylus blanci, Acanthodactylus boskianus, Acanthodactylus maculatus, Mesalina olivieri, Ophisops occidentalis), and hyperxeric (Acanthodactylus dumerilii, Acanthodactylus longipes, Acanthodactylus scutellatus, Mesalina guttulata). The analyses also indicated that environment had a weak influence on species richness (15.7% of explained variance), but a strong effect on the phylogenetic (76.5% NTD, 89.5% MPD) structure. The lacertid communities tended to be phylogenetically clustered on sandy substrates under arid climate conditions, and overdispersed under more humid climatic conditions.

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Currently, two subspecies of Psammodromus algirus are typically considered in Morocco ― P. algirus algirusand P. algirus nollii –, while a third form “ketamensis” is generally identified as a morphotype. However, this classification is based on colouration differences, and has not been assessed using genetic data, as the previously conducted biogeographic studies included only specimens from the range of P. algirus algirus. In order to better assess phylogeographic patterns within the species we sequenced a nuclear and a mitochondrial marker from Moroccan individuals, including samples from within the “nollii” range, and combined this with previously published data, predominantly from the Iberian Peninsula. No genetic evidence to support the separation of the Moroccan P. algirus in two distinct subspecies was found. Unlike most other studies of reptiles from this region, the identified diversity appears to have little or no corresponding geographical structuring, possibly due to the generalist nature of the species

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Mediterranean European landscapes have been shaped by human activities for centuries, particularly by livestock and farming. Traditionally managed montado landscapes have been recognized as having a crucial role in biodiversity conservation, providing habitat complexity and thus, ecological conditions for a variety of species. Biodiversity associated with montado can only be maintained under specific agricultural practices, with the intensification or abandonment of such practices posing serious threats for wildlife. Despite the high number of reptile species endemic to the Iberian Peninsula, research on the influence of agroforestry management practices on these species has been scarce. The mediterranean lizard Psammodromus algirus is a generalist species that responds to changes in the structure and quality of microhabitats, specifically the shrub layer, which is greatly affects by changes in cattle grazing intensity. In this study, we assessed how grazing affects the frequency of occurrence of P. algirus in a Mediterranean landscape dominated by montado. We detected that areas of intermediate age regarding grazing exclusion support higher lizard abundance, with P. algirus abundance being limited by vegetation structure and solar radiation. Thus, we may infer that the vegetation structure regulatory role of cattle will affect this lizard’s abundance, limiting it indirectly. We suggest that the maintenance of adequate traditional management, allowing the grazing pressure at low to moderate levels, would be beneficial to this species and reptiles in general and conclude that reconciling grazing and reptile conservation is possible if done in a sustainable way.

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Review of the distribution and conservation of amphibians and reptiles in the Province of Granada (Spain). -- The distribution of amphibians and reptiles in the Province of Granada (Spain) is recorded in 10 x 10 km U.T.M. squares. This updates previously recorded data. Thirty-four species, 12 amphibian and 22 reptiles, were found. The known spatial distribution of all the species is enlarged. Eleven species were found at higher than previously known altitudes. Conservation problems in the study area are pointed out.

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Monfragüe National Park (Cáceres, Extremadura, Spain) is a protected area in central‐western Iberia, including some of the best preserved primary Mediterranean vegetation. Legal protection dates back to 1979 (first as a Natural Park and then as a National Park), but knowledge about its reptile communities is so far limited to sparse records. In this paper we present an updated species list based on 521 records covering 163 1x1 km UTM grids in the study area, compiled in the period 2000‐2019. We detected 20 native species, representing 71.4% of the reptile fauna in Extremadura and 35% of the ibero‐balearic reptile fauna. Additionally, based on molecular analyses populations of the amphisbaenid genus Blanus in the study area are assigned to the oriental Iberian taxon, B. cinereus. The new records extend the known distribution of the different reptile species in the study area in 56 10x10 km UTM grids. Species presenting more restricted distributions in Monfragüe are Lacerta schreiberi (one 1x1 grid), Emys orbicularis, and Acanthodactylus erythrurus (four 10x10 grids each).

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Fire has impact on reptile communities with marked shifts in community composition between burnt and unburnt areas. These shifts are often related to the preference of reptile species throughout early or late post-fire successional habitats. Areas located in transition zones between bioregions harbor complex reptile communities with a mixture of biogeographic affinities. In these biogeographic crossroads, since fire simplifies the habitat structure, we expected simpler (lower alpha diversity) and more similar (lower beta diversity) reptile communities within burnt than within unburnt localities. We have tested this hypothesis in a transition zone between the Atlantic and Mediterranean bioregions in northern Portugal. Reptiles were surveyed in five localities (8 times per locality) along fire edges in which each locality was composed of one burnt and one unburnt transect. In total, 588 reptiles from 10 species were recorded. Unburnt transects had higher alpha and beta diversity and higher relative abundance of non-Mediterranean individuals than did burnt transects. A redundancy analysis also showed contrasting responses of Mediterranean and non-Mediterranean species, the former increasing and the latter decreasing after fire. Our study demonstrates that fire reduced the complexity of the reptile community, with benefits towards Mediterranean species due to its environmental preferences and long evolutionary association to fire. In biogeographic crossroads such as the study area, the retention of long unburnt vegetation is expected to maintain more diverse reptile communities.

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Transition zones between bioregions can sustain the coexistence of species with different biogeographic affinities through ecological niche segregation at a finer scale. Reptiles can serve as a good model group to evaluate the mechanisms behind such coexistence patterns especially due to their thermal sensibility to microhabitat structure. We examined whether reptile species spatially segregate in their microhabitat use and whether this segregation reflects the biogeographic affinities of species. Reptiles were surveyed across a 1.5-km transect located in the Peneda-Gerês National Park. We used 478 GPS observations of nine sympatric non-Mediterranean and Mediterranean species collected during field surveys in 2012 and 2013. Each observation was assigned to a microhabitat-openness measurement. Differences in microhabitat selection between Mediterranean and non-Mediterranean species were studied with factorial ANOVA analyses. The similarity in microhabitat selection between pairs of species was compared with the similarity in their Iberian distributions by a Partial Mantel test checking for the genetic distances between species pairs in a phylogenetic framework. Comparing a random selection of points along transect, we found that non-Mediterranean species used more closed microhabitats than Mediterranean species. No differences in this pattern were found between snakes and lizards. The Mantel test showed that microhabitat selection was correlated with the Iberian geographic distributional patterns of species. The complex vegetation structure of this area is most likely responsible for the availability of different microhabitats, which promotes high reptile species richness and governs their sympatric coexistence at a finer scale.

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There is an increasing recognition that fire is an important component of many ecosystems in the world, essential to understand the ecology and diversity of communities in fire-prone regions. It impacts fauna directly, through mortality, or indirectly by changing habitat structure and resources availability. In recent decades global warming, land abandonment and changes in traditional agricultural activities are driving changes in the frequency and extent of fires. In this context, to know the response of organisms to fire regimes is a conservation priority. Reptiles are a good model group to examine their responses to fire as they are ectothermic, sensible to modifications in habitat attributes such as vegetation structure and canopy closure, have low mobility and dispersal rates, and experience high rates of population declines and extinction. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effects of fire on reptile assemblages at two geographic scales: at a worldwide scale, where I examined patterns of reptile responses to fire considering the time since fire effect with a meta-analysis methodology (Chapter 1); at a local scale, where I evaluated the effect of wildfires on the reptile communities of the Serra da Estrela Natural Park, namely on the population densities, species richness (Chapters 2) and examined how the trophic ecology and interspecific interactions varied with fire using the Psammodrome lizard as a model species (Chapter 3). For this, I used a set of proper methodologies in order to collect and analyze all the data needed to perform this study (search scientific data for a meta-analysis; transects for reptile surveys followed by vegetation and habitat structure characterization; fecal pellets analysis and network metrics for lizard‟s diet). At a worldwide scale, lizards‟ diversity (richness) but not abundance decreases immediately after fire (<1 year) but recovers quickly to pre-fire levels with increased abundance. Regarding snakes, diversity is not significantly affected by time-since-fire but abundance decreases in the latter stages of the post-fire succession. In Serra da Estrela Natural Park, reptile abundance decreases in the first 5 years of post-fire succession, but increases in the interval between 5-10 years. I also found that Psammodromus algirus is positively related with tree cover, and negatively related with herbaceous cover. Plant diversity is also a relevant parameter for reptiles, since its presence (abundance) is positively related with the diversity of plant species. Relatively to the diet, metrics of the bipartite network for lizards collected in unburned and burned habitats demonstrated that P. algirus presents more selective behaviors in unburned habitats, than in burned ones. I have also found differences between burned and unburned areas as regards availability of prey, being the burned area the one presenting the richest arthropod communities. My results suggest that immediately after fire there is a decrease in species richness but communities recover quickly and reptile abundance increases in early stages of post-fire succession (both globally, and also in Serra da Estrela Natural Park). Although reptiles present a close relation with habitat structure, they seem well adapted to areas with different time since fire and present stable abundances across the post-fire succession. Moreover, they have diet variation and are adapted to consume a large variety of preys when conditions are not suitable. In undisturbed areas, they may present a selective behavior.

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In Tunesia during the second half of the month October six species of amphibians and reptiles were seen: Rana ridibunda perezi (Sousse), Bufo v. viridis (Sousse, Enfida), Tarentola mauritanica (Sousse), Psammodromus algirus (Sousse, El Djem, Hammamet). Arab names for amphibian (Hammamet), Acanthodactylus sp. (Hammamet) and Lacerta lepida pater (El Fahs), and reptile species, given by boys from Enfida, differ on many points from the names given by Doumergue (1901) for the region of Oran.

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Herpetological observations in Portugal and southern Spain (Cota Doñana and Sierra del Norte in Andalusia) In the first week of March 2008 a group of sixteen herpetologists visi- ted the Cota Doñana in the south of Portugal and the Sierra del Norte in Andalusia in Spain to look for reptiles and amphibians. The Cota Doñana is a wetland area close to the Mediterranean, with three types of landscapes (dunes, wetlands and shrub lands). The Sierra del Norte is a mountainous area and one of the warmest parts of southern Spain with shrub lands (maquis), low trees and Mediterranean herbs. A lot of species have been found (see table 2), though in relatively low quan- tities.

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Trace elements can be toxic when they cannot be easily removed after entering an ecosystem, so a long-term assessment is fundamental to guide ecosystem restoration after catastrophic pollution. In 1998, a pyrite mining accident in Aznalcóllar (south-western Spain) spilled toxic waste over a large area of the Guadiamar river basin, where, after restoration tasks, the Guadiamar Green Corridor was established. Eight years after the mine accident (2005–2006), the ground-dwelling insectivorous lizard Psammodromus algirus registered high trace-element levels within the study area compared to specimens from a nearby unpolluted control site. In 2017, 20 years after the accident, we repeated the sampling for this lizard species and also quantified trace elements in vegetation as well as in arthropod samples in order to identify remnant trace-element accumulation with the aim of assessing the transfer of these elements through the trophic web. We found remnant trace-element contamination in organisms of the polluted site compared to those from the unpolluted site. All trace-element concentrations were higher in arthropods than in plants, suggesting these compounds bioaccumulate through the trophic web. Lizards from the polluted areas had higher As, Cd, and Hg concentrations than did individuals from the unpolluted area. Lizard abundance between sampling periods (2005–06 and 2017) did not vary in unpolluted transects but strongly declined at polluted ones. By contrast, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index indicated that in the study period, the vegetation was similar at the two sampling sites. These results suggest that, 20 years after the accident, the trace-element pollution could be the cause of a severe demographic decline of the lizard in the polluted area.

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The main threats to the amphibians and reptiles of Galicia (NW Spain) are studied in relation to the information obtained during the last 30 years (1975-2005). The most negative factors affecting amphibians and reptiles in this territory are the human alteration of both aquatic and terrestrial habitats, and the introduction of exotic species (mainly freshwater crustaceans and fishes). These menaces have led to the extinction of some Galician populations of amphibian and reptiles. Other factors, such as emergent diseases, can be very important, but they have not been studied yet. This last threat is one of the main causes for the global amphibian decline. The recent status of the Galician herpetofauna is also analysed. According to the main population declines and areal reduction observed, the most endangered amphibian species is Pelobates cultripes. Other amphibians, such as Chioglossa lusitanica, Rana iberica and Rana temporaria, are also importantly put at risk. The most endangered reptile species is Emys orbicularis. The restricted and limited Galician populations of Lacerta vivipara, Chalcides bedriagai and Vipera latasti are also threatened. The available information for other reptile species (Blanus cinereus, Psammodromus hispanicus, etc.), is still very scarce, but it is possible that their situation is also precarious. The particular status of the insular populations of amphibians and reptiles from the islands off the Galician coast is also analysed.

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Mammals that build extensive open burrow systems are often classified as ecosystem engineers, since they have the potential to modulate the availability of resources for themselves and other organisms. Lizards may benefit from the heterogeneity created by these structures, especially if coupled with an increased offer of sites for refuge and thermoregulation. However, information about these engineering effects by burrowing animals is scarce. We investigated the influence of European rabbit burrows on several parameters of a Mediterranean lizard community (abundance, density, diversity and body condition) in three different habitats (open pastures, holm oak and scrub patches). We found that lizards were positively associated with burrows, and that burrows determined lizard presence at otherwise unfavourable habitats. Moreover, community parameters such as density and species richness were higher in sites with burrows. Burrows influenced lizard species in different ways, and were also relevant for other Mediterranean vertebrates, as revealed by questionnaires to experts. We also explored the possible resources provided by burrows for lizards. Warrens offer relatively abundant prey and appropriate retreat sites for refuge and thermoregulation. Warrens may have further implications within the ecosystem, acting as stepping stones, allowing lizards to reach otherwise inaccessible habitat patches. This study shows that European rabbit warrens have a positive influence on lizard density and diversity, and confirms the role of rabbits as ecosystem engineers. This reinforces the need for appropriate conservation measures for rabbits, especially given their threatened status in the Iberian Peninsula. Furthermore, our study highlights that taking into account the influence of engineering activities increases our awareness of species interactions, and may translate into more adequate conservation measures for the preservation of biodiversity.

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The frequent lack of biodiversity data on municipal areas favoured the performance of a herpetological study to determine the number of herpetological species in the four most significant types of habitat within the municipality of Navaridas (province of Alava). A number of different sampling surveys were performed (transects, and water net points) during 2015 and 2016. 15 herpetological species (8 amphibians and 7 reptiles) were found. Protected areas showed higher diversity levels, especially in the lake and associated holm oak woodland of Navaridas. The results suggest the possible benefit of low stone walls between vineyard for Podarcis liolepis. This study establishes a starting point for further research projects based on the population densities and evolution of herpetological species, and an assessment of the possible effects of agricultural activities on these populations.

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A first complete list of the reptile type specimens preserved in the Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (CSIC) of Ma-drid (updated until 15 July 2012) is provided. The collection houses a total of 319 type specimens representing 24 taxa belonging to 6 families and 12 genera. There are 22 taxa represented by primary types (19 holotypes, 2 neotypes and 1 lectotype) and at least one paratype, and only two taxa are exclusively represented by one secondary type (paratype). The collection is specially rich in Spanish endemisms. Special attention is deserved by the type series of many subspecies of Podarcis lilfordi described by A. Salvador and V. Pérez-Mellado. All type specimens are housed in the Herpetological collection except Blanus mariae and Psammodromus occidentalis type series and Psammodromus hispanicus (neotype) which are preserved in the DNA/Tissues Collection.

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Climatic conditions changing over time and space shape the evolution of organisms at multiple levels, including temperate lizards in the family Lacertidae. Here we reconstruct a dated phylogenetic tree of 262 lacertid species based on a supermatrix relying on novel phylogenomic datasets and fossil calibrations. Diversification of lacertids was accompanied by an increasing disparity among occupied bioclimatic niches, especially in the last 10 Ma, during a period of progressive global cooling. Temperate species also underwent a genome- wide slowdown in molecular substitution rates compared to tropical and desert-adapted lacertids. Evaporative water loss and preferred temperature are correlated with bioclimatic parameters, indicating physiological adaptations to climate. Tropical, but also some popu- lations of cool-adapted species experience maximum temperatures close to their preferred temperatures. We hypothesize these species-specific physiological preferences may con- stitute a handicap to prevail under rapid global warming, and contribute to explaining local lizard extinctions in cool and humid climates.

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Knowledge about chemical communication in some vertebrates is still relatively limited. Squamates are a glaring example of this, even when recent evidences indicate that scents are involved in social and sexual interactions. In lizards, where our understanding of chemical communication has considerably progressed in the last few years, many questions about chemical interactions remain unanswered. A potential reason for this is the inherent complexity and technical limitations that some methodologies embody when analyzing the compounds used to convey information. We provide here a straightforward procedure to analyze lizard chemical secretions based on gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry that uses an internal standard for the semiquantification of compounds. We compare the results of this method with those obtained by the traditional procedure of calculating relative proportions of compounds. For such purpose, we designed two experiments to investigate if these procedures allowed revealing changes in chemical secretions 1) when lizards received previously a vitamin dietary supplementation or 2) when the chemical secretions were exposed to high temperatures. Our results show that the procedure based on relative proportions is useful to describe the overall chemical profile, or changes in it, at population or species levels. On the other hand, the use of the procedure based on semiquantitative determination can be applied when the target of study is the variation in one or more particular compounds of the sample, as it has proved more accurate detecting quantitative variations in the secretions. This method would reveal new aspects produced by, for example, the effects of different physiological and climatic factors that the traditional method does not show.

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In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden insgesamt 90 herpetologische Fundpunkte aus der Algarve, Südportugal, aufgeführt, die auf verschiedenen Reisen zwischen 1990 und 1996 registriert werden konnten. Es wurden alle 12 Amphibienarten und 13 der 22 Reptilienarten nachgewiesen. Zu den einzelnen Arten werden Angaben über Habitate, Beobachtungszeiträume, Fortpflanzungsaktivitäten, Vergesellschaftungen und weitere ökologisch bedeutsame Beobachtungen mitgeteilt. Für Hyla meridionalis konnte der bislang höchste portugiesische Fundort (902 m üNN) nachgewiesen werden. Die Hauptlaichzeit der meisten Amphibien liegt im Winter, erstreckt sich bei Hyla meridionalis aber bis in den April. Die Larven haben bis zum Beginn der Frühjahrsmonate - vor Austrocknung der häufig temporären Gewässer - ihre Metamorphose abgeschlossen. Als einzige Reptilien wurden im Winter eine Elaphe scalaris und ein Jungtier von Psammodromus algirus außerhalb der Versteckplätze beobachtet.

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Records for the amphibian and reptile species of continental Portugal were plotted on maps using the 10 10 km squares of the UTM grid system. A total of 9394 observations were collected, from which 6485 re- cords came from previous national atlases, 1790 from recent published and unpublished work, and 1119 co- rrespond to new observations made by the authors and their collaborators. Overall 31.0% of the records are pre- sented for the first time in a national atlas. Remarkable new records include those for Tarentola mauritanica and Blanus cinereus, enlarging their known range into areas where they were not thought to occur. We present and discuss amphibian and reptile species-density maps.

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This study was carried out in the Iberian-Mediterranean region of Alentejo (Southern Portugal) to discover which ‘montado’ management practices significantly affected reptile variables (abundance, richness). Field surveys on 30 sampling plots allowed us to identify 370 individuals distributed among 12 terrestrial reptile species (six lizards, one amphisbaenid and five colubrid snakes). The lizard Psammodromus algirus was the dominant species (n = 297 individuals). The highest species richness was comprised of five species, whilst two or three species were recorded in two-thirds of the sampling plots. Principal component analysis over management variables accounted for 71.8% of the total variance and subsequently helped to reveal four agrosilvopastoral types. Among them, the highest reptile abundance largely overlapped the cork oak montado, while higher cattle stocking rates were estimated (trampling index) to occur in the holm oak areas, affecting significantly the reptiles. Regression models also showed that both reptile abundance and richness were significantly related to montado areas, where the shrub layer is well preserved and cattle are either absent or present at low stocking rates. Adequate management of montado, preserving the shrub patchwork, is crucial for the conservation of reptiles. Livestock stocking rates should also be maintained at a sustainable level of 0.2–0.4 cattle/ha.

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Karyotype data are presented for 12 species of lacertid lizards. Of these, 4 Acanthodactylus, 2 Eremias, 1 Ophisops, and 4 Lacerta have n = 19, with all chromosomes acrocentric. This is the typical lacertid karyotype, as reported in previous literature. One species, Lacerta parva, is quite different from all the others. The haploid number is 12, consisting of 7 pairs of metacentric macrochromosomes and 5 pairs of microchromosomes. The fundamental number (number of arms in the karyotype) is the same in L. parva as in all the other species studied. The possibility of female sex chromosomal heteromorphism is raised, but data are not sufficient to confirm this.

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Ich berichte über ein Echsenbiotop, in dem wir innerhalb kurzer Zeit drei Arten Lacertiden und eine tagaktive Geckoart fanden. Das Habitat dieser Echsengemeinschaft liegt knapp oberhalb 2200 m +ü.d.M. auf der Nordseite des Hohen Atlas in Marokko.

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Plusieurs séjours au Maroc entre 1974 et 1978 effectués soit dans le cadre de la RCP 249 du C.N.R.S. soit à l`occasion de voyages touristiques ont permis de rassembler des informations complémentaires sur l`herpétofaune marocaine. Captures, observations de spécimens écrasés sur les routes, mues et déterminations visuelles ont permis d`établir le texte qui suit. Il nous a paru intéressant de rassembler les observations ainsi obtenues avant leur Intégration dans un atlas des Reptiles du Maroc qui devrait voir le jour sous peu. Le découpage régional qui a été retenu est celui qui a été proposé par J. BONS (1967). Les observations les plus originales sont marquées d`un astérisque (*) et certaines sont commentées dans la conclusion.

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To better understand the organization and evolution of the basal ganglia of vertebrates, in the present study we have analyzed the chemoarchitecture and the cortical input to the nucleus accumbens in the lacertid lizard Psammodromus algirus. The nucleus accumbens contains many g-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-positive neurons and calbindin-positive neurons, the majority of which may be spiny projection neurons, and a few dispersed neuropeptide Y–positive neurons that likely represent aspiny interneurons. The nucleus accumbens contains two chemoarchitectonically different fields: a rostromedial field that stains heavily for substance P, dopamine, GABAA receptor, and a caudolateral field that stains only lightly to moderately for them, appearing more similar to the adjacent striatum. Injections of biotinylated dextran amine were placed in either the medial, dorsomedial, or dorsal cortices of Psammodromus. The medial and the dorsal cortices project heavily to the rostromedial field of the accumbens, whereas they project lightly to moderately to the caudolateral field. Cortical terminals make asymmetric, presumably excitatory, synaptic contacts with distal dendrites and the head of spines. Our results indicate that the hippocampal-like projection to the nucleus accumbens is similar between mammals and reptiles in that cortical terminals make mainly excitatory synapses on spiny, putatively projection neurons. However, our results and results from previous investigations indicate that important differences exist between the nucleus accumbens of mammals and reptiles regarding local modulatory interactions between cortical, dopaminergic, and cholinergic elements, which suggest that the reptilian nucleus accumbens may be as a whole comparable to the shell of the mammalian nucleus accumbens.

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The cellular populations and the plexiform layers of the dorsomedial cortex of Psammodromus algirus are described at the ultrastructural level. Solitary globous cells are located in the outermost layer of the cortex, the superficial plexiform layer. Double pyramidal cells of the cellular layer show uniform ultrastructural characteristics. Displaced double pyramidal cells, vertical fusiform cells, and globous cells are found in the deep plexiform layer. Two types of dendritic spines are described. Large spines may contain membranous sacs and mitchondira and are located at the upper third of the superifical plexiform layer; small spines do not contain organelles and are located throughout the entire cortex. Two types of axon terminals are widely distributed in both plexiform layers: terminals with only clear vesicles and terminals with both dense-core and clear vesicles. Terminals with large dense-core vesicles may be related to peptidergic synapses and are more frequent at the upper levels of the superficial plexiform layer. The neuroglia described in the dorsomedial cortex of Psammodromus are protoplasmatic astrocytes and oligodendrocytes.

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The dorsal cortex of Psammodromus algirus is three-layered. From the pia to the ependyma, it consists of a superficial plexiform layer, a cellular layer, and a deep plexiform layer. Five neuronal types have been classified in the dorsal cortex. Pyramidal neurons represent 18.75% of neurons and differ morphologically depending on their position in the pars medialis or lateralis of dorsal cortex. Pyramidal neurons in the pars medialis are smaller and their apical dendritic fields are less extensive than those of pyramidal neurons in the pars lateralis. Bitufted neurons represent 22.5% of dorsal cortical neurons and are only found in the cellular layer of the pars lateralis. Multipolar neurons are distributed in the pars medialis and lateralis, in the cellular layer and the deep plexiform layer; they represent 46.25% of the total impregnated cells. Bipolar neurons are found mainly in the deep plexiform layer and form 11.25% of neurons. Two subtypes may be distinguished: horizontal and vertical bipolar cells. Juxtaependymal neurons represnt 1.25% and are located just above the ependyma. All the neurons in the cellular layer are projection cells.

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This study examined the distribution and localization of the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)A receptor in the brain cortex of a reptile by light and electron microscopy, to test whether cortical GABA inhibition is mainly mediated through the GABAA receptor complex. We used preembedding immunocytochemistry and a monoclonal antibody, raised against the receptor complex, that recognizes the beta 2 and beta 3 subunits of the receptor. GABAA receptors were distributed throughout the entire cerebral cortex except the dorsomedial cortex. The immunostaining consisted of fine granules restricted to the plexiform layers of the cortex as seen by light microscopy. This granular aspect of the immunoreactivity most likely corresponds to the immunopositive dendritic and axonal profiles observed under the electron microscope. Some neurons in the medial and lateral cortices displayed patches of immunoreactivity along the cell body and processes, and as a result their morphology was outlined. We discuss the possibility that these neurons were GABAergic as well. The immunocytochemical data demonstrate that the distribution and localization of GABAA receptors in discrete regions of the reptilian cerebral cortex resemble that of parts of the hippocampal formation of humans and rats, suggesting that the basic configuration of the GABA system in these regions is conserved.

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Residual yolk is assumed to be an important source of energy and nutrients during early life in nonmammalian amniotes. Available data show that the mean size of residual yolk is far smaller in lizards than in turtles, snakes, crocodiles, and birds, raising a question of whether residual yolk is of functional significance in lizards. Here, we compared data from 26 lizard species with those from other nonmammalian amniotes to test the hypothesis that residual yolk is functionally less significant in species producing more fully developed offspring. In our sample, species mean offspring water contents ranged from 73% to 84% of body wet mass; species mean proportions of carcass dry mass, fat-body dry mass, and residual yolk dry mass to offspring dry mass ranged from 84% to 99%, 0% to 5.0%, and 0% to 14.4%, respectively. Lizards are, on average, more fully developed at hatching or birth than snakes, as revealed by the fact that the mean proportion of carcass dry mass to body dry mass and offspring water contents were both higher in lizards than in snakes. We conclude that the functional significance of residual yolk during early life is generally less evident in lizards. Even in the lizards where residual yolk is of potential functional significance, this portion of yolk contributes little, if any, to postembryonic growth. Future work could usefully collect data across a wider spectrum of reptile taxa to establish a precocial–altricial continuum and test the hypothesis that species with a smaller amount of residual yolk are closer to the precocial end of the continuum.

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In recent years there has been an exponential increase in the amount of published DNA sequences, as it has become one of the most popular sources of data for reconstructing phylogenies. A number of studies have attempted to resolve the relationships of groups of lacertids using mitochondrial DNA sequence data, in particular Podarcis and Gallotia (e.g. THORPE et al., 1994; 1996; GONZALEZ et al., 1996; FU et al., 1997; HARRIS, 1997; HARRIS et al., 1998a; 1999; CASTILLA et al., 1999a,b). Reassessment of these data suggest some alternative phylogenies to those previously published, and also highlight possible problems. Two studies have attempted to unravel the phylogeny of the whole family using mitochondrial DNA sequences (FU, 1998; HARRIS et al., 1998b). By combining these essentially congruent data sets, and reanalysing levels of support for the phylogenies produced, a more complete estimate of relationships across the family is produced. This is then compared to alternative sources of evidence, primarily morphological (ARNOLD, 1989), biochemical (MAYER & BENYR, 1994) and karyological (OLMO et al., 1993). Reasons for discrepencies are discussed, as are the relative advantages and disadvantages of the different sources of phylogenetic inference.

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Additional data on the distribution of terrestrial herpetofauna from Morocco are pre- sented, based on fieldwork carried out in March and May 2008. Thirty-eight species were recorded from 78 localities. Some of these represent considerable range extensions for the species, indicating that more prospection is needed to complement the existing knowledge of herpetofauna from this country.

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DNA sequences from parts of the 12S, 16S and cytochrome b mitochondrial genes, which totalled 1049 aligned base pairs, were used to estimate the relationships of 49 species of Lacertidae, including representatives of 19 out of the 23 recognized genera and 23 species of the paraphyletic genus Lacerta. These data were used, together with morphological information, to estimate the relationships within the family. Molecular evidence corroborates the monophyletic status of many genera and species groups originally based on morphology. It indicates that Psammodromus forms a clade with Gallotia, which is the sister taxon of all other lacertids. These comprise three units: the primarily Afrotropical armatured group; the largely Oriental Takydromus; and the west Palaearctic Lacerta and its derivatives, Podarcis and Algyroides. Morphology also supports the first three assemblages, but suggests that they are derived from a paraphyletic Lacerta. Within Lacerta and its allies, DNA sequence analysis corroborates the affinity of some members of each of the subgenera Lacerta s. str. and Timon, and of the L. saxicola group. It also supports the relationship of L. monticola, L. bonnali and L. horvathi, and suggests that the L. parva–L. fraasi clade and L. brandti are not related to Psammodromus–Gallotia, as morphology indicates, but instead are associated respectively with the L. danfordi and L. saxicola groups. DNA sequence data provide additional evidence that the eastern Arabian `Lacerta` jayakari and `L.` cyanura are members of the armatured clade and also sister species. Our analysis supports an origin for present lacertids in west Eurasia. The armatured clade invaded Africa, probably in the mid-Miocene, spreading widely and evolving increasingly xeric-adapted forms, one lineage of which later moved back into the Palaearctic. `Lacerta` jayakari and `L.` cyanura are assigned to Omanosaura, Lutz and Mayer 1986. The name Gallotiinae Cano, Baez, Lopez-Jurado and Ortega, 1984 is available for the Gallotia–Psammodromus clade, Eremiainae Shcherbak 1975 for the armatured clade and Lacertinae for Lacerta, Podarcis and Algyroides. Two new subgenera of Lacerta are proposed here: Caucasilacerta for L. saxicola and its allies, and Parvilacerta for L. parva and L. fraasi.

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The ability to preserve reptile communities inside urban contexts becomes increasingly crucial as urban areas continue to grow and displace natural and agricultural landscapes. To carry out decisionmaking procedures and conservation measures on the ground, we must first understand species` reactions to habitat features at the local level. Six artificial hibernacula have been built in two periurban parks in the city of Tres Cantos as a result of a local conservation and awarenessraising project. Alongside these structures, 23 circular sectors with a radius of 75 meters have been designated between the two parks, and visual transects have been conducted for 15 minutes over a full year, grouped into two samplings in spring and one in autumn. Psammodromus algirus and Zamenis scalaris were the main reptile species studied for these values of richness and abundance. These values have been linked to environmental factors such as vegetation cover, the distance between environments or points of interest, and human disturbance. The discovery of 7 of the 13 reptile species included in the grid demonstrates the potential for periurban regions to support reptile ecosystems. The number of species was associated with the presence of nonvegetal refuge (rocks, rubble, etc.) and the presence of vegetal refuge, being more relevant in those sectors with a higher proportion of 2050 cm vegetation stratum and decreasing in grassland areas. Similarly, the abundance of P. algirus was strongly associated with these tree strata and avoided open spaces, influenced by strong antipredator behavior. The data collected has been used to create a system that scores the suitability of various sectors for hosting reptiles. Additionally, a plan for conservation and monitoring measures has been developed to improve the local project for herpetofauna shelters and adjust policies for managing urban green areas, especially those linked to mowing activities.

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1. Research addressing the effects of global warming on the distribution and persistence of species generally assumes that population variation in thermal tolerance is spatially constant or overridden by interspecific variation. Typically, this rationale is implicit in sourcing one critical thermal maximum (CTmax) population estimate per species to model spatiotemporal cross‐taxa variation in heat tolerance. Theory suggests that such an approach could result in biased or imprecise estimates and forecasts of impact from climate warming, but limited empirical evidence in support of those expectations exists. 2. We experimentally quantify the magnitude of intraspecific variation in CTmax among lizard populations, and the extent to which incorporating such variability can alter estimates of climate impact through a biophysical model. To do so, we measured CTmax from 59 populations of 15 Iberian lizard species (304 individuals). 3. The overall median CTmax across all individuals from all species was 42.8 °C and ranged from 40.5 to 48.3 °C, with species medians decreasing through xeric, climate‐generalist and mesic taxa. We found strong statistical support for intraspecific differentiation in CTmax by up to a median of 3 °C among populations. We show that annual restricted activity (operative temperature > CTmax) over the Iberian distribution of our study species differs by a median of > 80 hours per 25‐km2 grid cell based on different population‐level CTmax estimates. This discrepancy leads to predictions of spatial variation in annual restricted activity to change by more than 20 days for six of the study species. 4. Considering that during restriction periods, reptiles should be unable to feed and reproduce, current projections of climate‐change impacts on the fitness of ectotherm fauna could be under‐ or over‐estimated depending on which population is chosen to represent the physiological spectra of the species in question. Mapping heat tolerance over the full geographical ranges of single species is thus critical to address cross‐taxa patterns and drivers of heat tolerance in a biologically comprehensive way.

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The evolutionary diversification of many terrestrial vertebrate groups is strongly linked to climatic events in the Cenozoic, the period from 65 Million years ago to today when modern animals first appeared. I investigated the effects of Cenozoic climate change on the taxonomic and morphological diversification of the Old World lizard family Lacertidae, with particular emphasis on the African radiation. African lacertids exhibit an unusual pattern of diversification, in which their highest species richness occurs in deserts north and south of the equator, despite being spread throughout the continent. This disparity is particularly surprising given that desert lacertids are thought to be evolutionarily younger than their mesic-dwelling relatives, suggesting increased diversification rates in arid habitats. To identify the evolutionary factors underlying this pattern, I use a combination of phylogenetic, morphological and ecological techniques. In Chapter 1, I apply Bayesian methods and fossil-based calibrations to molecular sequence data to construct a time-calibrated phylogeny for Lacertidae. I estimate that the family arose in the early Cenozoic, with the majority of their African radiation occurring in the Eocene and Oligocene. In Chapter 2, I describe changes in lacertid body shape across biomes and substrates, and find widespread morphological convergence in similar habitat types. I suggest that in addition to foraging demands, fluctuating and extreme climatic conditions, largely driven by precipitation and temperature, contribute to morphological convergence across independent arid-dwelling clades. Finally, I test if ancestral transitions in ecology, morphology, and rates of diversification temporally coincide with paleoclimatic events in the Cenozoic. I use High Resolution X-ray Computed Tomography to characterize changes in the skull related to life in arid habitats, and apply maximum likelihood methods to test if the origins of those traits temporally coincide with significant shifts in habitat, diversification rates and climatic changes. My results show that African lacertids experienced three major peaks in diversification, accompanied by the evolution of suites of arid-adapted morphological traits. These changes coincide with climatic shifts in Africa, including the transition from closed forests to open grasslands and savanna in the late Oligocene, prior to the peak temperatures of the mid-Miocene Climatic Optimum, and following the formation of the Benguela current leading to hyper-aridity in southern Africa. I conclude that deserts are important centers for reptile evolution, but that expected changes in climate due to global warming may outpace the ability of arid-dwelling species to adapt and persist in the future.

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Background: Although current molecular clock methods offer greater flexibility in modelling evolutionary events, calibration of the clock with dates from the fossil record is still problematic for many groups. Here we implement several new approaches in molecular dating to estimate the evolutionary ages of Lacertidae, an Old World family of lizards with a poor fossil record and uncertain phylogeny. Four different models of rate variation are tested in a new program for Bayesian phylogenetic analysis called TreeTime, based on a combination of mitochondrial and nuclear gene sequences. We incorporate paleontological uncertainty into divergence estimates by expressing multiple calibration dates as a range of probabilistic distributions. We also test the reliability of our proposed calibrations by exploring effects of individual priors on posterior estimates. Results: According to the most reliable model, as indicated by Bayes factor comparison, modern lacertids arose shortly after the K/T transition and entered Africa about 45 million years ago, with the majority of their African radiation occurring in the Eocene and Oligocene. Our findings indicate much earlier origins for these clades than previously reported, and we discuss our results in light of paleogeographic trends during the Cenozoic. Conclusion: This study represents the first attempt to estimate evolutionary ages of a specific group of reptiles exhibiting uncertain phylogenetic relationships, molecular rate variation and a poor fossil record. Our results emphasize the sensitivity of molecular divergence dates to fossil calibrations, and support the use of combined molecular data sets and multiple, well-spaced dates from the fossil record as minimum node constraints. The bioinformatics program used here, TreeTime, is publicly available, and we recommend its use for molecular dating of taxa faced with similar challenges.

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Presentamos nuevos registros de distribución en malla UTM de 10x10 km para Psammodromus algirus, Coronella austriaca y Vipera latastei en Soria, Castilla y León (España). Así mismo reportamos la sintopía de Podarcis muralis y Podarcis liolepis en dicha área. Adicionalmente, proveemos información detallada de la ocurrencia de 17 especies de reptiles y anfibios como contribución al esfuerzo de elaboración de mapas de herpetofauna de Soria.

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Several recent papers have reviewed the life and work of French herpetologist Louis Amédée Lantz. They have detailed the composition of his collections deposited in several museums. However, since then, several other important specimens from his collections deposited at the Natural History Museum (NHM, UK) have come to light and we here present all of them in detail. We discovered paralectotypes of Lacerta saxicola obscura Lantz & Cyrén (BMNH 1918.11.21.5–7), syntypes of Lacerta boemica Sukhov (BMNH 1960.1.4.26–30, BMNH 1965.337–342) and Lacerta viridis media Lantz & Cyrén (BMNH 1960.1.4.25, 1966.512). We also identified numerous specimens from the French Mediterranean islands in Lantz’s collection deposited at the NHM, some of which represent the first reported specimens of their species from certain islands. We here provide data on all these specimens. We also place the Mediterranean island specimens from the Lantz collection in their historical context and emphasize the historical and taxonomic value of these collections.

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Life-history strategies may be defined as co-adapted suites of traits that determine the variations in fecundity and survivorship throughout the life of organisms. These strategies have been shaped by natural selection to maximize reproductive success in a particular environment. In widely distributed species, it is therefore expected to find interpopulation differences in life-history strategies, due to the particular environmental conditions experienced by different populations. Here, we analyze the differences in phenotypic traits –life-history strategies, antipredatory behavior, and morphology– between two populations of the Large Psammodromus Psammodromus algirus (a lacertid lizard from the western Mediterranean basin) separated by 600-700 m along an elevational gradient. Low-elevation females, in order to ensure the survival of their offspring under the harsh conditions of xeric Mediterranean lowlands, are constrained to perform a higher per-offspring investment than females from the high-elevation site, where food availability is higher and the intensity of the summer drought is lower; this implies trading larger clutches for larger offspring. On the other hand, low-elevation hatchlings are able to grow faster under different conditions of food availability both in the field and under a ‘common-garden’ design, and they are also able to remain inactive if the conditions are too harsh to compensate the metabolic and predation-risk costs of activity. However, high-elevation juveniles, due to higher food abundance at the highelevation site, are able to grow faster and attain a larger size as adults, especially in the case of females. Between-populations differences in habitat structure may have shaped the antipredatory behavior of gravid females; at the low-elevation site, with lower refuge availability, gravid females run more slowly, they cover shorter distances, and they spend more time sheltered or near refuges. Males, probably due to the higher intensity of sexual selection pressures at the low-elevation site, also show morphological differences. Low-elevation males have longer hind limbs, more and larger femoral pores, and a more intense nuptial coloration, which might contribute to optimize intraspecific communication in an environment with drier, hotter conditions (and probably with higher visibility). To summarize, in this PhD thesis we argue that current phenotypic variation seems to maximize reproductive success in the two populations studied, revealing their ability to adjust their reproductive characteristics and life-history strategies to the challenges posed by environmental variation along a Mediterranean elevational gradient.

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Life-history strategies may be defined as co-adapted suites of traits that determine the variations in fecundity and survivorship throughout the life of organisms. These strategies have been shaped by natural selection to maximize reproductive success in a particular environment. In widely distributed species, it is therefore expected to find interpopulation differences in life-history strategies, due to the particular environmental conditions experienced by different populations. Here, we analyze the differences in phenotypic traits –life-history strategies, antipredatory behavior, and morphology– between two populations of the Large Psammodromus Psammodromus algirus (a lacertid lizard from the western Mediterranean basin) separated by 600-700 m along an elevational gradient. Low-elevation females, in order to ensure the survival of their offspring under the harsh conditions of xeric Mediterranean lowlands, are constrained to perform a higher per-offspring investment than females from the high-elevation site, where food availability is higher and the intensity of the summer drought is lower; this implies trading larger clutches for larger offspring. On the other hand, low-elevation hatchlings are able to grow faster under different conditions of food availability both in the field and under a ‘common-garden’ design, and they are also able to remain inactive if the conditions are too harsh to compensate the metabolic and predation-risk costs of activity. However, high-elevation juveniles, due to higher food abundance at the highelevation site, are able to grow faster and attain a larger size as adults, especially in the case of females. Between-populations differences in habitat structure may have shaped the antipredatory behavior of gravid females; at the low-elevation site, with lower refuge availability, gravid females run more slowly, they cover shorter distances, and they spend more time sheltered or near refuges. Males, probably due to the higher intensity of sexual selection pressures at the low-elevation site, also show morphological differences. Low-elevation males have longer hind limbs, more and larger femoral pores, and a more intense nuptial coloration, which might contribute to optimize intraspecific communication in an environment with drier, hotter conditions (and probably with higher visibility). To summarize, in this PhD thesis we argue that current phenotypic variation seems to maximize reproductive success in the two populations studied, revealing their ability to adjust their reproductive characteristics and life-history strategies to the challenges posed by environmental variation along a Mediterranean elevational gradient.

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Oviposition site choice, which is one of the most important forms of parental care in oviparous reptiles, has major effects on incubation duration, reproductive success, and offspring phenotype. We determined the thermal characteristics of nest-sites selected by females of the lacertid lizard Psammodromus algirus in laboratory thermal gradients, and we linked results with information on the effects of temperature on incubation times and hatchling phenotypes. Temperatures at oviposition sites (mean 6 SD 5 26.0 6 1.9uC) were on average lower and had a lower variance than those at available sites (32.0 6 6.2uC). The duration of incubation decreased dramatically as temperature increased. In fact, the hatching dates predicted by the temperatures selected in the thermogradients were delayed with respect to the mean emergence dates observed in the field. Such disparity might occur because (1) natural incubation temperatures are variable rather than constant, (2) they are expected to rise later in the season, and (3) temperatures that are too high can severely compromise embryonic survival. In addition, females might select relatively low nest-site temperatures because hatching too early can force juveniles to face limited growth opportunities caused by food shortage in the Mediterranean environments in which they live.

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1. In reptiles, growth is subject to proximate environmental influences, such as food availability and temperature, that may be crucial during the early stages of postnatal development. Mediterranean regions, with their severe summer drought, offer an excellent opportunity to examine the effects of environmental variations in precipitation and productivity on the timing of reproduction and growth rates of lizards. 2. In this study, we compared the incubation time, size at hatching, growth rates and changes in juvenile body condition of two nearby populations of the lizard Psammodromus algirus separated by 600–700 m altitude in central Spain. We combined a reciprocal incubation experiment at 27 and 30 ° C with a reciprocal transplant experiment to distinguish between environmental and population-specific sources of geographical variation. 3. At both temperatures, eggs from the high-elevation site hatched sooner. Several important phenotypic traits of juveniles were primarily determined by the growing environment: the high-elevation site provided more food and allowed hatchlings to grow faster and reach larger size. 4. Environmental effects overrode familial ones, as shown by the larger growth rate of half-sibs released at the high-elevation site. However, both the size and the growth rate of juveniles were also influenced by their mother’s site of origin, which means that population differences may reflect a genetic differentiation and/or different maternal effects. 5. Low precipitation and associated food scarcity were seemingly the main factors constraining the growth rates of juveniles at the lowland site.

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Intraspecific variation in morphology has often been related to fitness differences through its effects on performance. In lizards, variation in hind limb length can be shaped by natural selection for increased locomotor performance, sexual selection on the number or size of femoral pores involved in chemical signalling, or both. Here, we analyse the selective forces involved in sexual dimorphism and differences in hind limb length between two populations of Psammodromus algirus living at different elevation. Males were more robust and had longer hind limbs and limb segments than females, and low-elevation lizards had longer limbs than high-elevation lizards. However, differences in locomotor performance were small and non-significant, making natural selection for faster runs an unlikely explanation for the observed pattern. On the other hand, males had more femoral pores than females, and lizards had more pores at lower elevation, although the difference was significant only for males (which invest more in chemical signalling). In males, the number of pores, which remains constant along a lizard`s life, was not correlated with hind limb length. However, femur length was positively correlated with mean pore size, allowing low-elevation males to have larger than expected pores, which could increase the effectiveness with which they spread their signals in a dry and warm habitat where chemicals become volatile rapidly. Also, saturation of the sexual coloration of the head was higher for low-elevation males, suggesting that sexual selection pressures may be more intense. Overall, our results indicate that sexual selection plays a significant role in shaping intraspecific variation in hind limb length.

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Natural populations of the same species living in dif-ferent environments can differ in their life history traits as a response to variations in environmental conditions such as climate, food availability, or predator abundance (Martin, 1995; Shine, 2005; Brown & Shine, 2006). Among the characteristics that vary along environmental gradients (e.g., latitudinal or altitudinal), clutch size, offspring size, growth rate, and size and age at maturity are crucial to understand-ing the ecology and distribution of animals. Reptiles provide excellent model systems for studying the evolution of these Abstract: We examined activity rates prior to hibernation, age-adjusted body size, growth rates, and probability of recapture after spring emergence of juveniles from 2 populations of the lizard Psammodromus algirus separated by 600–700 m altitude. We captured gravid females, incubated the eggs, and released the juveniles into the wild. We used a reciprocal transplant design in a year of severe drought to distinguish between environmental and population-specific sources of variation. The levels of autumn activity differed between release sites (activity was higher at the more productive, high-elevation site) and between maternal sites of origin (at the low-elevation site, juveniles of low-elevation origin were less active than those of high-elevation origin). Although clutch mass was similar at both sites, eggs from low-elevation females were larger but fewer than those from high-elevation ones. Larger juveniles and those from high-elevation clutches had higher survival rates. The juveniles recaptured in autumn at the low-elevation site were smaller as neonates than those that were not recaptured until next spring. Our results suggest that the scarcity of prey at the low-elevation site is a selective pressure resulting in limitation of activity, given the increased energy expenditure and risk of predation incurred by active lizards. Thus, at the low-elevation site inactivity would be advantageous for most juveniles, and only the smaller ones would have to remain active frequently enough to accumulate sufficient reserves prior to hibernation. This is consistent with the selective advantage of large eggs (and small clutches) at the low-elevation site.

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Tail autotomy has clear advantages regarding predator escape, but it also has several associated costs (i.e., impaired locomotion, loss of social status, and reduced growth and reproductive output). We examined the costs of severe autotomy on growth rates of hatchlings of the lacertid lizard Psammodromus algirus during the first weeks of postnatal development. Hatchlings from two populations in central Spain were autotomized on the fifth day after hatching and kept in common garden conditions for 35 days when they were measured again. Hatchlings from both populations, independently of the autotomy treatment, did not differ in the mass gained during the experiment. However, there were differences in body growth between tailless and tailed hatchlings; tailless hatchlings grew at a slower rate than tailed ones, after controlling for the effects of body condition at the onset of the experiment and the resources assimilated. Moreover, independently of their population of origin, hatchlings that invested more in body growth also invested more in regenerating their tails, and no trade-offs were apparent. Because hatchlings were housed in common garden conditions, this result could be attributable to differences in individual capacity to obtain and assimilate resources.

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The trade-off between clutch and offspring size, which is a central topic in life-history research, is shaped by natural selection to maximize the number of surviving offspring, but it also depends on the resources available for reproduction. Conspecific populations living in different environments may differ in adult body size, clutch mass, clutch size, offspring size, and/or post-natal growth rates, due either to phenotypic plasticity or to local adaptation. Here, we compare these traits and their relationships between two populations of the lizard Psammodromus algirus separated by a 600-m altitudinal gradient. We used a common garden design to control incubation temperature and food availability, with two different feeding treatments. Females were larger at the high-elevation site. Although SVL-adjusted clutch mass did not differ between populations, high-elevation females laid more but smaller eggs than low-elevation ones. Hatchlings were larger at lower elevation. Our common garden experiment revealed that low-elevation hatchlings grew faster than high-elevation hatchlings under both feeding treatments. However, higher food availability at higher altitude allows high-elevation lizards to grow faster and attain larger adult sizes, especially in the case of females. The two key adaptations of low-elevation lizards, large eggs and hatchlings and the ability to grow rapidly after hatching, are likely to enhance survival in low-productivity Mediterranean lowlands. Our data support the hypothesis that the reproductive strategies of these populations provide an example of countergradient variation, because the genotypes that encode for fast growth and large body size occurred in low food availability habitats where juveniles grew slowly and attained small adult sizes.

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In lizards, locomotor costs of gravidity may depend on habitat structure and refuge availability. We compared the locomotor performance and escape tactics in the laboratory, before and after oviposition, of two populations of Psammodromus algirus separated by 700 m altitude. When gravid, females escaped using a larger number of slower and shorter runs, and had lower temperatures at the time of trial, than after oviposition. Some of these effects differed between populations: when gravid, but not after oviposition, low-elevation females ran shorter distances at a slower average speed than high-elevation ones. Low-elevation females laid their clutches earlier than high-elevation ones, which conditioned their lower speed when gravid in simultaneous running trials. However, their escape distances were still shorter after controlling for the effects of temperature and laying date. In the field, refuge availability was lower at the low-elevation site, where females spent more time inside refuges and perching above ground. The shorter escape distance of low-elevation females may, thus, represent a behavioural response to minimize detectability, especially if predator avoidance depends primarily on whether or not the lizard is seen by the predator. Such behavioural adjustments might inhibit selection for evolutionary shifts in the performance of gravid females.

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Broadly distributed lizard species may exhibit significant variation in the direction and magnitude of morphological dimorphism. The Algerian Psammodromus, Psammodromus algirus, is a common and widely distributed lacertid lizard in the Western Mediterranean region and research on sexual and geographical morphological variation in this species is uneven across clades, with the North African populations being overlooked. In this study we investigated the sexual and geographical dimorphism in two populations of P. algirus from Algeria. Although no morphological variation in SVL was detected in our study, we observed that males had larger heads and longer hind limbs than females. Additionally, the two populations differed in terms of pileus width, forelimb length, and hind limb fourth toe length, regardless of sex. We discuss the potential reasons for these observed patterns in relation to selective pressures, such as predation, competition, or sexual selection. The findings of this study suggest an intraspecific stability in morphological patterns across the geographic range of the species and emphasize the need for further research to unravel the underlying mechanisms responsible for the observed patterns of sexual and geographical morphological variations.

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Psammodromus algirus, Podarcis hispanica, Timon lepidus and Tarentola mauritanica were observed in the surroundings of Lloret de Mar, NE Spain.

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Aim To map and assess the richness patterns of reptiles (and included groups: amphisbaenians, crocodiles, lizards, snakes and turtles) in Africa, quantify the overlap in species richness of reptiles (and included groups) with the other terrestrial vertebrate classes, investigate the environmental correlates underlying these patterns, and evaluate the role of range size on richness patterns. Location Africa. Methods We assembled a data set of distributions of all African reptile species. We tested the spatial congruence of reptile richness with that of amphibians, birds and mammals. We further tested the relative importance of temperature, precipitation, elevation range and net primary productivity for species richness over two spatial scales (ecoregions and 1° grids). We arranged reptile and vertebrate groups into range-size quartiles in order to evaluate the role of range size in producing richness patterns. Results Reptile, amphibian, bird and mammal richness are largely congruent (r = 0.79–0.86) and respond similarly to environmental variables (mainly productivity and precipitation). Ecoregion size accounts for more variation in the richness of reptiles than in that of other groups. Lizard distributions are distinct with several areas of high species richness where other vertebrate groups (including snakes) are species-poor, especially in arid ecoregions. Habitat heterogeneity is the best predictor of narrow-ranging species, but remains relatively important in explaining lizard richness even for species with large range sizes. Main conclusions Reptile richness varies with similar environmental variables as the other vertebrates in Africa, reflecting the disproportionate influence of snakes on reptile richness, a result of their large ranges. Richness gradients of narrow-ranged vertebrates differ from those of widespread taxa, which may demonstrate different centres of endemism for reptile subclades in Africa. Lizard richness varies mostly with habitat heterogeneity independent of range size, which suggests that the difference in response of lizards is due to their ecological characteristics. These results, over two spatial scales and multiple range-size quartiles, allow us to reliably interpret the influence of environmental variables on patterns of reptile richness and congruency.

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Esta tesis trata de, una vez explorados los rasgos fenotípicos que pueden interpretarse como adaptaciones locales, contestar a preguntas que tienen que ver con cómo responde el genoma a las presiones selectivas divergentes que subyacen a la diferenciación de dichos rasgos. En general, no se pretende descubrir la base genética de la adaptación a los gradientes ambientales que generan adaptación local; lo que se busca es desentrañar cómo la evolución provee la variación genética necesaria para afrontar diferentes retos ecológicos en una especie capaz de subsistir en una gran variedad de ambientes. Mediante escaneos genómicos a gran escala, conseguimos definir fracciones del genoma relacionadas con la adaptación a distintos ambientes, revelando patrones de convergencia y divergencia adaptativa gracias a procesos tanto de mantenimiento de diversidad genética ancestral como de innovación genética. Tras conseguir descifrar la huella de la selección natural en el genoma, nos preguntamos acerca de las dinámicas genéticas responsables de los umbrales adaptativos que configuran los límites de la distribución de la especie, como proceso que depende de forma directa de la adaptación local. Por último, realizamos un estudio de los efectos genéticos de la fragmentación del hábitat en una metapoblación de lagartijas, en la que el aumento de la homocigosidad en los fragmentos de menor tamaño dio lugar a una pérdida de aptitud (eficacia biológica o aptitud) en los individuos afectados. Además, nuestro trabajo nos permitió aumentar significativamente la potencia estadística de unos pocos marcadores neutrales (6 loci de microsatélites utilizados para sustentar las correlaciones entre fragmentación, homocigosis y aptitud), validándolos con una base de datos genómica con más de 73,000 variantes genéticas.

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During geographical expansion of a species individual colonizers have to confront different ecological challenges, and the capacity of the species to broaden its range may depend on the total amount of adaptive genetic variation supplied by evolution. Weset out to test whether the distribution of loci under selection along a contrasting environmental gradient can be turned into a model that accurately predicts a species’ range. If positive, this may shed light on the genetic source of adaptive limits that shape range boundaries. We sampled five populations of the western Mediterranean lizard Psammodromus algirus that inhabit a noticeable environmental gradient of temperature and precipitation. We used 21 SNPs putatively under selection tocorrelate the genotypes of 95 individuals with environmental variation among their populations, using 1x1 km2 grid cells assampling units. By extrapolating the resulting model to all possible combinations of alleles, we inferred the locations that were the oretically suitable for the species. The inferred distribution range overlapped to a large extent with the realized range ofthe species, including an accurate prediction of internal gaps and range borders. Our results suggest an adaptability threshold determined by the amount of genetic variation available that would be required to warrant adaptation beyond a certain limitof environmental variation. These results support the idea that the expansion of a species’ range may be ultimately linked to the arising of new variants under selection.

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In the context of the immunocompetence handicap hypothesis, we explored how differences in parasite load affect the way in which sexual ornaments codify information about individual quality. We studied variation in sexual signals in two Iberian populations of the lizard Psammodromus algirus, a species in which sexually active males display a red head coloration. In one population, males were free of tick nymphs, whereas in the other one all males were tick-infested (mean of 12.7 tick nymphs/individual).At the onset of the breeding season, the red-coloured surface was larger in the non-parasitized population than in the parasitized one, whereas the opposite was true for colour saturation. We experimentally simulated a bacterial infection (by intraperitoneal injection of lipopolysaccharide) to examine the effects of immune activation on the expression of this sexual ornament. In the non-parasitized population, our treatment caused a reduction in the red-coloured surface of experimental males, whereas in the parasitized population it caused a decrease in colour saturation. In the parasitized population, males that displayed sexual coloration were larger, and had fewer parasites, than uncoloured ones, and inflammatory response to lipopolysaccharide injection in the palm of the hind paw was negatively correlated with colour saturation, but not with colour extension. Thus, we suggest parasites not only constrained the expression of sexual ornaments, but they also changed the signal properties that conveyed useful information about the quality of their bearers.

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Local adaptation is a dynamic process by which different allele combinations are selected in different populations at different times, and whose genetic signature can be inferred by genome-wide outlier analyses. We combined gene flow estimates with two methods of outlier detection, one of them independent of population coancestry (CIOA) and the other one not (ROA), to identify genetic variants favored when ecology promotes phenotypic convergence. We analyzed genotyping-by-sequencing data from five populations of a lizard distributed over an environmentally heterogeneous range that has been changing since the split of eastern and western lineages ca. 3 mya. Overall, western lizards inhabit forest habitat and are unstriped, whereas eastern ones inhabit shrublands and are striped. However, one population (Lerma) has unstriped phenotype despite its eastern ancestry. The analysis of 73,291 SNPs confirmed the east–west division and identified nonoverlapping sets of outliers (12 identified by ROA and 9 by CIOA). ROA revealed ancestral adaptive variation in the uncovered outliers that were subject to divergent selection and differently fixed for eastern and western populations at the extremes of the environmental gradient. Interestingly, such variation was maintained in Lerma, where we found high levels of heterozygosity for ROA outliers, whereas CIOA uncovered innovative variants that were selected only there. Overall, it seems that both the maintenance of ancestral variation and asymmetric migration have counterbalanced adaptive lineage splitting in our model species. This scenario, which is likely promoted by a changing and heterogeneous environment, could hamper ecological speciation of locally adapted populations despite strong genetic structure between lineages.

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Usually, adaptive phenotypic differentiation is paralleled by genetic divergence between locally adapted populations. However, adaptation can also happen in a scenario of non-significant genetic divergence due to intense gene flow and/or recent differentiation. While this phenomenon is rarely published, findings on incipient ecologically-driven divergence or isolation by adaptation are relatively common, which could confound our understanding about the frequency at which they actually occur in nature. Here, we explore genome-wide traces of divergence between two populations of the lacertid lizard Psammodromus algirus separated by a 600 m elevational gradient. These populations seem to be differentially adapted to their environments despite showing low levels of genetic differentiation (according to previously studies of mtDNA and microsatellite data). We performed a search for outliers (i.e. loci subject to selection) trying to identify specific loci with FST statistics significantly higher than those expected on the basis of overall, genome-wide estimates of genetic divergence. We find that local phenotypic adaptation (in terms of a wide diversity of characters) was not accompanied by genome-wide differentiation, even when we maximized the chances of unveiling such differentiation at particular loci with FST-based outlier detection tests. Instead, our analyses confirmed the lack of differentiation on the basis of more than 70,000 SNPs, which is concordant with a scenario of local adaptation without any degree of isolation by environment. Our results add evidence to previous studies in which local adaptation does not lead to any kind of isolation (or early stages of ecological speciation), but maintains phenotypic divergence despite the lack of a differentiated genomic background.

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The Large Psammodromus (Psammodromus algirus) is a lizard that has flexible antipredator behavior, with a considerable preference for finding shelter in the leaf litter under short scrub, and which rarely uses tree trunks to escape from predators. Nevertheless, few works have studied the microhabitat uses and the antipredator behavior of this species in more simplified landscapes, such as agricultural areas. In this work, we studied the microhabitat use (where they were observed and to where they escaped) of the lizard Psammodromus algirus in two types of olive groves located in southern Spain: with herbaceous ground cover and with bare ground. We found a large number of lizards in olive trees, which were their preferred destination after fleeing behavior in both types of olive groves, although the proportion of individuals fleeing towards the trees was greater in plots with bare ground. Moreover, a large proportion of the lizards observed on the ground fled towards the olive trees, suggesting that they actively seek the trees as a place of refuge. These results suggest that the lack of suitable microhabitats proving shelter on the ground forces these terrestrial lizards to use trees, which may allow them to colonize simplified landscapes such as olive groves in which there is no alternative shelter.

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Ecological investigations on the lizards of the R.N.O. and S.C.I.“Isola di Lampedusa”.The results of the investigations concerning six species of lizards occurring inthe Natural Reserve “Isola di Lampedusa” (Hemidactylus turcicus, Tarentola mauritanica, Psammodromus algirus and Chalcides ocellatus), and inother areas of the island (Podarcisfilfolensisand P. sicula) are given. T. mauritanica is the most common and widespread lizard, with population densitiesranging from 100 to 800 indi- viduals per ha on Lampedusa and 1,200 ind./ha on Isola dei Conigli. C. ocellatusoccurs mainly in fields and in the urban area(up to 600 ind./ha), while, on the main island, it results extremely rare or absent in wide areas characterized by rocky substrate. Population density was estimated around 220- 330 ind./ha for P. algirus, while the total number of lizards inhabiting the Conigli islet could be esti- mated around 600-1,200 individuals. Both introduced species, P. filfolensisand P. sicula, are still con- fined within small urban areas, where they seem to be less common than the autochthonous Sauria. Body temperature of P. algirus(mean 30.9 °C) seems to be scarcely related to environmental Saurias, while that of T. mauritanica(25.2-32.0 °C) and C. ocellatus(26.9-32.0 °C) resulted significatively relat- ed to air and soil temperatures. The diet of the studied species is mainly based on invertebrates, espe- cially insects. T. mauritanicashows a clear preference for terrestrial preys and its diet on Conigli islet includes an unusual high percentage of ants (14% of the whole preys’ spectrum). As already known for P. algirus, vegetal matter is largely consumed also by the other lizards. A partial herbivorism char- acterised the diet of T. mauritanicaon Conigli islet, as well asC. ocellatuson both islands. Despite the absence of snakes and domestic predators on the latter, the highest percentage of lizards with broken or regenerated tails was observed onConigli islet. A test on the potential predation pressure wascar- ried outusing plastiline models; the results show that the lizard-models were attackedmainlybygulls, even if this species is doubtfully considered as a effective predator of lizards.

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Circum‐Sicilian and Maltese herpetofauna includes 22 species occurring with steady populations, andsome of them (Pelophylax bedriagae, Trachemys scripta, Chamaeleo chamaeleon, Hemorrhois algirus and perhapsTelescopus fallax) were introduced during the last two centuries, while for other 7 at least one introduction withinthe study islands was documented during the same span of time; furthermore, temporary occurrences were alsodetected for other 16 species (3 amphibians and 13 reptiles), some of which (Hyla sp., Graptemys pseudogeo‐graphica, Centrochelys sulcata, Pantherophis guttatus and Lampropeltis getula) have not been previously recordedfor these islands. Accidental or intentional introductions have gradually increased in recent decades and have asignificant influence in shaping these herpetofunal assemblages. On the contrary, extinction seems to be less fre‐quent and involved especially amphibians. The updated faunal inventory for 65 islands includes several new recordsand the results of the first herpetological investigations on the islets Faraglione di terra di Cala Fico, Colombaia,Vittoria Garcia (circum‐Sicilian), Pigeon Rock and Cheirolopus Rock (Maltese).

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Atlases of fauna with distribution maps and information about biology and ecology are useful tools for the management and conservation of the species. Knowledge about distribution of the reptiles in Sicily dates back to 2006. An update of data was carried out taking also into account the systematic innovations of the last twelve years. For creating the geographic distribution maps, the UTM WGS84 cartographic system was used. At present 24 species of reptiles live and reproduce in the Sicilian territory. On the main island there are 17 species, on the minor islands the number varies from a minimum of four to a maximum of eight species. Compared to the bibliographic data, for 16 species an increase in the number of cells occupied has been recorded, with a variation between 0.3 and 81.8%, five species have not undergone variation, and for two species a decrease was recorded. The current presence of Testudo hermanni on the minor Sicilian islands is dubious or unlikely. The higher number of species compared to the previous distribution data is due to the recent confirmation of the presence of Eryx jaculus in Sicilian territory, and the presence of a new Tarentola taxon of specific rank in Lampedusa island. The decrease of Podarcis filfolensis is due to its absence from the known site in Lampedusa, while the case of Zamenis situla is due to the exclusion of data collected in some areas where there are no recent, reliable observations.

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Animals should be able to adjust their behavior by tracking changes in predation risk level continuously. Many animals show a pattern of intermittent locomotion with short pauses that may increase detection and vigilance of predators. These locomotor patterns may depend on the microhabitat structure, which affect predation risk levels. We examined in detail in the laboratory the characteristics of spontaneous locomotion, scanning behavior, and the escape performance of Psammodromus algirus lizards moving in two different microhabitats (leaf litter patches and open sand areas). Results showed that in leaf litter, lizards moved at slower speed and had shorter bursts of locomotion both in distance and duration, than in sand substrates. This locomotor pattern allowed lizards to increase scanning rate and total time spent in vigilance behavior. When lizards were forced to flee, they escaped to longer distances and during more time in open sand areas, but lizards were able to attain similar escape speed in the two substrates. Lizards may be able to compensate the cost of moving between different microhabitats with different predation risk by behaviorally changing their locomotor and vigilance patterns. However, complex interactions between the visibility of lizards to predators and the ability of lizards to detect predators, together with the need of attending simultaneously to other conflicting demands, may lead to apparently non-intuitive solutions in locomotor patterns and the rate of vigilance behavior.

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Males of many species of lizards show conspicuous breeding colors but, in some species, young competitively inferior males conceal their sexual identity by a female-like dull coloration that allows them to evade aggression from dominant males and to adopt an alternative satellite-sneaking mating tactic. However, large males of the lizard Psammodromus algirus reacted aggressively to young intruder males despite their female-like coloration, suggesting that they might have the ability to recognize competitor males by chemosensory cues. We experimentally manipulated the head coloration (brown vs orange) and scents (male vs female) of small young males. For staged agonistic encounters, we compared the response of resident unmanipulated large males to the different manipulated small males. When we manipulated only the color of small males, the response of resident large males was independent of the paint manipulation; brown and orange males elicited a similar aggressive response. However, when we also manipulated the scent, small males painted orange or brown, but bearing the scent of males, received a significantly higher number of aggressive responses than small males painted orange or brown, but bearing the scent of females. The results showed that, at close range, the reaction of large males to manipulated individuals was dependent on the scent, whereas color seemed to be less important. Coloration may be, however, more important in long-distance communication as shown by the outcome of the first encounters. Also, orange coloration may increase the intensity of the aggressive response. Effective sex recognition by territorial large males is important in natural situations to avoid sneak matings by young male competitors. Thus, even if small males visually conceal their sexual identity, chemosensory cues allow large males to identify them at close range.

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Herpetological observations were made over a period ofeight days in three areas ofsouthern France. The places visited included the Camargue, the area below Perpignan and the surroundings of the town of Privas. The 19 species we saw, are described in this article and are mentioned in the accompanying table.

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Chemosystematic investigations on the position of Lacerta jayakari and the genera Gallotia and Psammodromus (Sauria; Lacertidae) 13 species of the genera Lacerta, Psammodromus and Gallotia (L. erhardii, L. filfolensis, L. bedriagae, L. cappadocica, L. jayakari, L. vivipara, L. trilineata, L. agilis, P. hispanicus, P. algirus, G. atlantica, G. galloti, G. stehlin:) have been examined by means of micro complement fixation tests (albumin) as well as by proteinelectrophoresis concerning 14 genetic loci. The results and their con-sequences are the follows: 1. L. cappadocica, L. bedriagae, and L. erhardii/L. filfolensis are representatives of phylogeneticly equivalent groups (subgenera). Their isolation in the Middle Miocene corresponds with the first contacts of the landmasses of Eurasia and Africa. 2. Lacerta jayakari may be considered as a representative of a further group equivalent in this aspect; though the immunological results would not exclude a position near the green lizards (subgenus Lacerta s. str.). 3. Because of this isolated position of L. jayakari for this species (and Lacerta cyanura) the subgenus Omanosaura subgen. nov. has been established. 4. Psammodromus hispanicus and P. algirus have probably been isolated of each other since the Middle Miocene, too. 5. The radiation of the genus Gallotia corresponds closely with genesis of the Canary Isles.

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Die Serra de Säo Mamede mit ihrem collinen Umland (Provinz Alto Alentejo/ Portugal) ist Gegenstand einer herpetofaunistischen Studie. Das isoliert auf einer 300 m hoch liegenden Ebene aufbauende Gebirgssystem überschreitet als einziges in Portugal südlich des Rio Tejo die l 000 m-Grenze. Die klimatischen Bedingungen weichen vom Etesienklima des Umlandes durch atlantische Klimakomponenten (hohe Niederschläge und Luftfeuchte, tiefere Temperaturen) deutlich ab. Diese Voraussetzungen begünstigen das sympatrische Vorkommen mediterraner und atlantischer Floren- und Faunenelemente und dadurch eine hohe Artendiversität. Mit 15 Amphibien- bzw. 20 Reptilienarten beherbergt das Untersuchungsgebiet 82 % der Amphibien- und 74 % der Reptilienarten Kontinentalportugals und zählt somit zu den artenreichsten Regionen des Landes. Bemerkenswert sind die als glaziale Relikte interpretierten isolierten Populationen der 3 iberoatlantischen Endemiten Alytes obstetricans boscai, Rana iberica und Lacerta schreiben. Während Lacerta schreiben noch 2 weitere Montanisolate südlich des Tejo aufweist, beschränkt sich das Vorkommen von Alytes obstetricans boscai und Rana iberica auf die Serra de Säo Mamede.

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ln der vorliegenden Arbeit wird die Herpetofauna von über 50 portugiesischen Gebirgszügen zusammengestellt: für jedes Gebirge der hõchste bisher bekannte Fundort der einzelnen Arten mit Hôhenangabe. Es ist das Ergebnis vierjiähriger Untersuchungen (1976-1980).

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This survey is presenting the geographical range of 17 amphibian and 29 reptile species (including the marine turtles) known to occur in Portugal, based on available data from the literature as well as ehe author`s own observations during the years 1976- 1981. It is the first attempt to map exactly the herpetofauna of a southern European country. Data are given concerning the horizontal and vertical distribution of each species, the density of distribution as well as the typical habitats, the latter being described in some detail. The rhythm of activity of most of the species depends on the different climatic conditions within this country. The few available phenological data are sum- marized.

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The results of two excursions (winter 1982/83 and spring 1983) to Portugal require the present additional note to my paper: `Contribution to the knowledge of the distribution of the Portuguese herpetofauna.` Remarkable new distributional data are provided for Chioglossa lusitanica, Alytes cisternasii, Pelobates cultripes, Tarentola mauritanica, Podarcis hispanica and Psammodromus hispanicus.

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Der hier herpetologisch untersuchte Raum schließt sich unmittelbar östlich an das gleichsmning durchforschte Areal zwischen Ericeira und Sintra (vgl. MALKMus 1979 b) an. Die vorliegende Arbeit soll als 2. Teil der ehen zitierten verstanden weIden. Da häufig auf dieses westlich liegende Gebiet bezug genommen wird, wird es aus Gründen der Platzersparnis im weiteren Text als A, bezeichnet Nachdem das Gebiet in seinem südöstlichen Teil fast die nördlichen Ausläufer der Llssaboner Vorortzeoae Loures/Guerreiros tangiert, möchte man annehmen, daß ein solches Kartierungsvorhaben nach dem Studium der Literatur auf der Basis eines reichen Datenmaterials aufbauen könnte. Mit Verwunderung m`ß man jedoch feststellen, daß nicht mehr als 2 Fundpunkte zur Verfügung stehen (CRESPO 1791, 1972). Somit smd alle nachgenannten Daten Neunachwelse für das Gebiet, die erstmals in den Kartierungsatlas (MALKMUS 1982 c) aufgenommen wurden. Verteilt auf 41 Exkursionen wurde die Untersuchungsfläche zwischen November 1977 und Juni 1981 systematisch kartiert. Der erfahrene Feldherpetologe weiß, daß dies nicht genügt, um in einem Gebiet diesen Umfanges auch Dur annähernd umfassend die oben genannte Zielsetzung zu erreichen. Der hier publizierte Aufsatz will deshalb auch mehr Anregung zur Weiterarbeit sein, als ein abgeschlossenes Forschungsvorhaben beschreiben.

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Die Verbreitung der Amphibien und Reptilien Südost-Portugals — östlich der Linie Albufeira-Ourique und südlich des Rio Terges — sind Gegenstand dieser Veröffentlichung. Nach Darstellung der geologischen und klimatischen Bedingungen erfolgt eine Habitatcharakterisierung auf der Basis von Vegetationseinheiten. Ein kurzer Abriß zur Geschichte der Herpetofaunistik des Untersuchungsgebietes zeigt, daß die ersten Fundortmeldungen bis 1879 zurückzuverfolgen sind. Es wurden 12 Amphibienund 22 Reptilienarten (einschließlich 2 mariner Schildkröten) registriert - 62 % der Herpetofauna Festland-Portugals. Die Verbreitungsdarstellung der einzelnen Arten erfolgt in Form einer Punktkartierung. Habitatstruktur, geologische, hydrologische und klimatische Voraussetzungen sind in den einzelnen Landschaftsgroßräumen teilweise sehr unterschiedlich mit einer entsprechend unterschiedlichen Artenzusammensetzung der sie besiedelnden Herpetozönosen und zum Teil scharfen Verbreitungsgrenzen einzelner Arten. Die größte Artendiversität (12 Amphibien, 20 Reptilien) beherbergen die requisitenreichen zum Teil mit Eichenhainen durchsetzten Macchien, während Pinus- und Ewcs/i/pfus-Aufforstungen und Extremstandorte (Dünen, Marschwiesen) weniger als 5 Arten aufweisen. Großflächige anthropogene Eingriffe (forstliche Monokulturen, touristische Erschließung und Zersiedlung der Küstenzone, starke Verschmutzung der Fließgewässer) der letzten zehn Jahre führten regional besonders unter den Amphibienbeständen zu starken Rückgängen.

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In 26 Portuguese castles 5 amphibian and 11 reptile species were recorded. Most species immigrated into the castle area from the surrounded environment. In some regions the distribution of Tarentola mauritanica and Hemidactylus turcicus is restricted to castles and the adjacent village or town; it is highly probable that they were introduced there by man. The microhabitat castle is highly endangered by restaurations.

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Die Arbeit befasst sich mit den Verbreitungsverhältnissen der Amphibien und Reptilien in einem atlantomediterranen Karstgebiet, Natural das Serras de Aire e Candeeiros (PNSAC). Die geologischen und klimatischen Verhältnisse, sowie das Habitatinventar und die herpetofaunistische Literatur werden vorgestellt. Es folgen Angaben zu den im Naturpark registrierten 12 Amphibien- und 17 Reptilienarten, deren Verbreitung in Form einer Punktkartierung innerhalb des 10 x 10 km UTM-Gitternetzes dargestellt wird. 85 % der Arten sind thermophile westmediterrane, die übrigen holomediterrane, west- und zentraleuropäische Faunenelemente. Unterschiede der Artenzusammensetzung des Untersuchungsgebietes im Vergleich zu jener von Karstgebieten im südlichen Portugal sowie die menschlichen Einflüsse durch den wachsenden Verkehr, die expandierende Urbanisierung, der übermäßige Einsatz an Agrochemie, der Landnutzungswandel und die häufigen Großbrände werden diskutiert.

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Gegenstand dieser Veröffentlichung ist die Darstellung der Verbreitungsverhältnisse der Amphibien und Reptilien der östlichen Beira Baixa (östliches Mittelportugal). Einleitend werden die geologischen und klimatischen Bedingungen beschrieben, das Habitatinventar und die den Raum betreffende herpetofaunistische Literatur vorgestellt. Im Untersuchungsgebiet wurden 16 Amphibien- und 23 Reptilienarten registriert, deren Verbreitung kartografisch auf der Basis eines 1 x 1 km UTM-Gitternetzes dargestellt wird. Während auf dem südlichen und zentralen Planalto mesomediterrane Arten vorherrschen, werden diese im nördlich gelegenen höheren Bergland durch supramediterrane und eurosibirische ersetzt. Pelodytes ibericus erreicht im Untersuchungsgebiet sein küstenfern nördlichstes, Hyla meridionalis den Grenzbereich seines landesweit nördlichsten Vorkommens. Triturus marmoratus und Triturus pygmaeus erscheinen in einer teilweise über 10 km breiten Überlappungszone in Sympatrie. Abschließend wird das Gefährdungspotenzial anthropogener Einflüsse (Ausbau der Infrastruktur, Einsatz von Agrochemie, Landnutzungswandel) auf die Herpetozönosen diskutiert und die Bedeutung der im Untersuchungsgebiet liegenden beiden großen Schutzzonen (Reserva da Serra da Malcata, Parque Natural Tejo Internacional) für die Herpetofauna erläutert.

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Wir stellen die Verbreitungsverhältnisse der Amphibien und Reptilien der Barroso-Region (Nordportugal) vor. Einleitend werden die geologischen und klimatischen Bedingungen des Untersuchungsgebietes beschrieben, die Habitattypen und die sich auf den Kartierungsraum beziehende herpetofaunistische Literatur vorgestellt. Bisher wurden 12 Amphibien- und 19 Reptilienarten registriert. Ihre Verbreitung wird kartografisch auf der Basis eines 1 x 1 km UTM-Gitternetzes dargestellt. Charakteristisch für den gesamten Untersuchungsraum ist die Dominanz eurosibirischer Arten mit zahlreichen nordiberischen Endemiten (Chioglossa lusitanica, Rana iberica, Lacerta schreiberi, Podarcis bocagei, Vipera seoanei), unter die sich an der klimabegünstigten Südabdachung einige mediterrane Arten (Tarentola mauritanica, Blanus cinereus) mischen. Vipera seoanei erreicht im Untersuchungsgebiet das am weitesten nach Süden vorgeschobene Vorkommen ihres Gesamtareals; Psammodromus hispanicus und Chalcides bedriagai die nordwestliche Grenzzone ihrer Verbreitung in Portugal. Abschließend wird auf die Bedeutung des Einflusses der anthropogenen Landschaftsgestaltung auf die Verbreitungsmuster der einzelnen Arten hingewiesen und die aktuellen Gefährdungsursachen (Landnutzungswandel, Wiederbewaldung, Talsperrenbau) beschrieben.

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Gegenstand der Veröffentlichung ist die Darstellung der Verbreitungsverhältnisse der Amphibien und Reptilien des Parque Natural do Douro Internacional (PNDI) im Nordosten Portugals. Einleitend werden die geologischen und klimatischen Voraussetzungen des Untersuchungsgebietes, das Habitatinventar und die sich auf den Kartierungsraum beziehende herpetofaunistische Literatur vorgestellt. Es wurden 12 Amphibien- und 20 Reptilienarten registriert, deren Verbreitung kartografisch auf der Basis des 1 x 1 km UTM-Gitternetzes dargestellt wird. Das Untersuchungsgebiet besteht aus einem Planalto, einem westlichen Ausläufer der spanischen Meseta, und wird vom Canyon des Rio Douro und seinen Zuflüssen gegliedert. Diesem Talsystem folgend, dringen thermophile mesomediterrane Arten (z. B. Pleurodeles waltl, Alytes cisternasii, Mauremys leprosa, Tarentola mauritanica, Macroprotodon brevis) tief in die supramediterrane Zone des Planaltos ein. Sie besiedeln hier ein weit nach Nor- den vorgeschobenes Isolat. Ein Gebirgsriegel zwischen Serra da Estrela und den zentralspanischen Kordilleren blockiert eine Verbindung zu den großflächigen, Verbreitungsarealen dieser Arten in Mittel- und Südportugal. Hemorrhois hippocrepis und Macroprotodon brevis erreichen im Untersuchungsgebiet die Nordgrenze ihrer Gesamtverbreitung. Abschließend wird die Bedeutung des Einflusses der anthropogenen Landschaftsgestaltung auf die Verbreitungsmuster der einzelnen Arten erläutert und die aktuellen Gefährdungsursachen (Landnutzungswandel, Einsatz von agrochemischen Produkten, Verschmutzung der Gewässer, Einführung von Zoozoen) beschrieben.

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We describe the distribution of the amphibians and reptiles of the Serra de Monte-muro (northern Portugal). In the introduction the geological and climatical condi-tions of this region as well as the habitat types and the herpetofaunistic studies are described. 11 amphibian and 17 reptile species were recorded. The distribution pat-tern of each species is shown by maps using the 1 x 1 km squares of the UTM grid system. In the montane region predominate north Iberian endemits (Chioglossa lusi-tanica, Rana iberica, Lacerta schreiberi; the occurrence of Podarcis bocagei is doubtful) and ubiquists (Salamandra salamandra, Triturus marmoratus, Lissotriton boscai, Pelophy-lax perezi; Chalcides striatus, Timon lepidus, Podarcis guadarramae). Along the rivers (Rio Douro, Rio Paiva), areas with components of Mediterranean climate, thermophile species (Chalcides bedriagai, Blanus cinereus, Hemorrhois hippocrepis) penetrate into the investigated area. Within the region Podarcis carbonelli reaches the northernmost oc-currence of its total distribution range. Remarkable is the high number of individuals of some montane Hyla molleri populations. Finally, the human impact on the land-scape (change of agricultural activities, reforestation in monocultures, widespread forest fires), its influence on the distribution pattern of the amphibians and reptiles and the efforts for protect the habitats are discussed.

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Some aspects of the herpetofauna of an area of the exterior mountain-chain of Western Catalan Pre-Pyrenees are analized. This area is a transition from dry Mediterranean plain -influenced by continental climate- to middle Mediterranean mountain- with eurosiberian influence-. Although characteristic Mediterranean elements (ibero-mogrebian) prevail, this transition character appears also in herpetology. The most representative species of both areas are: Euproctus asper (from the Pyrenees), Anguis fragilis, Vipera aspis (of central Europe) and Pelobates cultripes, Coluber hippocrepis, Psammodromus hispanicus (of ibero-mogrebian origin). In this area 22 species have been found: 8 Amphibians and 14 or 15 Reptiles (depending on the acceptance of the presence of Podarcis muralis).

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In order to study the composition of the south Kabylie’s herpétofauna (Bouira’s and Bordj Bou Arreridj’s wilaya), we have chosen six different ecological areas. 19 species (1 Amphibian and 18 Reptiles) have been inventoried. They are mainly of mediterranean origin (12 species of 19) with 3 species typically North Africans (Timon pater, Chalcides chalcides and Mesalina olivieri). But in this herpétofauna we have found two saharian species (Psammophis schokari and Mesalina olivieri). The field analysis of the species distribution showed that the landscape composition played an important role. Some species such as P. algirus frequented various areas, others such as Natrix natrix and Natrix maura preferred humid areas, Acanthodactylus erythrurus localized in biotopes with sandy substratum, also Timon. pater who frequents forests, on the six community studied none presents q high diversity. The main important specific riches were observed in the low scrub (10 species). The intermediate situation that corresponds to the average of the diversity and the regularity was observed in the rocky open ground and the low scrub.

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Food habits of Psamodrommus algirus Linnaeus, 1758 (Reptilia: Lacertidae) in Djurdjura, northern Algeria. -- In this study, we present the first data on the diet of Psammodromus algirus of Tala Guilef sector (Djurdjura National Park). The analysis of 43 feces allowed us to identify 245 food items, spread over 15 Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs). Insects are the most consumed and, among them, the five most ingested categories of preys are: Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Heteroptera, Homoptera, and Orthoptera. During the study period, the food spectrum is slightly diversified (BA = 0,41). Statistics analysis applied to prey categories proportions shows a significant influence of seasonal variation on the diet: x² = 42,94 p < 0,0001; ddl = 14. It presents a specialized diet in spring (BA = 0,25) concentrated essentially on Coleoptera and Hymenoptera. In summer, it became more opportunistic (BA = 0,46), but Coleoptera remain the most consumed category of preys.

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In this study, we present the first data on the diet of two sympatric lizard species Psammodromus algirus and Podarcis vaucheri of the Djurdjura Mountains. The analysis of 100 feces (43 Ps. algirus and 57 P. vaucheri) allowed us to identify 560 prey items (254 for Ps. algirus and 312 for P. vaucheri) distributed across 17 operational taxonomic units. Insects were most commonly consumed by both species, but spiders were also preferred by P. vaucheri. The five most commonly ingested categories of prey among insects were: Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Homoptera, Heteroptera and Orthoptera. During the study period, the interspecific diet overlap was very high (CH = 0.86). But the diet of P. vaucheri (BA = 0.50) was slightly more diversified than that of Ps. algirus (BA = 0.41). The diets of both species were, however, not strongly different. A significant influence of seasonal variation on diet was detected.

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Quantification of heavy metal concentrations in biota is a common technique that helps environmental managers measure the level of pollutants circulating in ecosystems. Despite interest in heavy metals as indicators of localized pollution, few studies have assessed these pollutants in reptiles. In 1998, the tailing pond of a pyrite mine near Aznalcóllar (southwestern Spain), containing mud with high heavy metal concentrations, collapsed, releasing 6 million m(3) of toxic sludge into the Guadiamar Basin. Here we analyze heavy metal concentrations in the most common reptile in the area, the large psammodromus, Psammodromus algirus, a rather small lizard. We quantified levels of several elements (Hg, Sb, Cd, Cr, Tl, Sn, Ba, Cu, Pb, Sr, Mn, Rb, As, and Zn) in lizard tail clips collected in and around the affected area during the springs of 2005 and 2006. Samples were collected from two contaminated localities, one directly affected by the spill, and another adjacent to the tailing pond, but not covered by toxic mud. We also collected samples from a nonpolluted control site in the same basin. We found higher concentrations of As, Tl, Sn, Pb, Cd, and Cu in lizards from the affected area than in lizards from the control site, indicating the continued presence of heavy metal pollutants in the terrestrial food chain 8 years after the mine accident. We did not uncover sexual or annual differences in heavy metal concentrations, although concentrations increased with lizard size. We discuss how heavy metals moved across the food chain to lizards, despite intensive restoration efforts after the accident, and suggest that reptiles to be included in biomonitoring programs of heavy metals pollution in terrestrial habitats.

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An ultrastructural study of the mucous cells of the intestinal epithelium of four lacertilian species (Lacerta lepida, Lacerta hispanica, Psammodromus algirus and Acanthodactylus erythrurus) is here reported. Two types of mucous cells have been found in these species: common mucous cells and granular mucous cells. Immature and mature forms of both types have been observed. The common mucous cells or typical goblet cells have the same characteristics in all four species. The granules of the granular mucous cells of the two species of Lacerta are similar but differ from those of the other two species.

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1. The addition of mass to an animal may reduce its locomotory capabilities and thus increase the predation risk. The effects of recent feeding on locomotor and escape performance of juvenile Psammodromus algirus lizards were examined. The consequences of a full stomach on the movement rate and locomotor patterns of lizards when walking spontaneously, and on their escape response from a simulated predator, were specifically analysed to determine whether juvenile lizards were able to compensate through modifications of behaviour for the possible locomotory difficulties derived from a full stomach. 2. The results indicated that feeding did not significantly affect the rate of spontaneous movements. However, voluntary locomotor patterns were partially affected. Thus, after feeding, individuals moved to significantly slower burst speeds, and also decreased significantly the frequency of pauses. 3. The escape performance was also significantly affected by feeding. In an individual escape run, lizards decreased their initial speed, although their burst speed did not change, and escaped over longer periods, stopping at greater distances. The endurance of the escape response in a continuous predator attack also decreased significantly after feeding, and lizards ran on less occasions and for shorter periods before becoming exhausted and hiding. 4. The possible consequences of reduced locomotory abilities on fitness are discussed. It is proposed that, by changing their behaviour, juveniles may reduce these costs. This may allow them to consume large amounts of food at a time without incurring a higher predation risk.

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. Many lizards use caudal autotomy as a defensive strategy. However, subsequent costs related to the alteration of locomotor abilities might decrease the fitness of individuals. In this paper, the movement patterns of spontaneously moving Psammodromus algirus lizards and their escape performance running at high speed were compared before and after tail loss. A control tailed group was also studied to assess the repeatability of locomotor patterns between trials. 2. Tail loss had a significant effect on spontaneous movement patterns. Tailless individuals moved at significantly slower speeds during bursts of locomotion, and distances moved within bursts were significantly reduced. The overall time spent pausing increased, and, as a result, overall speeds decreased to an even greater extent than burst speeds. However, mean durations of individual locomotor bursts and mean pause durations did not change significantly after tail loss. 3. Loss of the tail decreased mean stride length, although the positive relation between stride length and speed was retained. 4. Escape performance was also greatly affected; loss of the tail resulted in substantially reduced attained, maximal and overall escape speeds. These changes resulted in shorter escape distances (the time of the first pause after the initiation of the escape response) because the mean duration of escape responses did not change. 5. The relevance of these alterations for the ecology of this species, and how individuals may compensate for the costs of tail loss, favouring autotomy as an escape strategy, are discussed.

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Evidence for parasite-mediated sexual selection has been found in many species that use visual ornaments to attract females. However, in many animals, variation in female responses to scents of parasitized males suggests that parasitic infections might also affect information conveyed by pheromones (i.e., chemical ornaments). Thus, pheromones might also function in parasite-mediated sexual selection. We show here that female lizards Psammodromus algirus responded differently to femoral gland secretions of males according to the parasite load and health of these males. Scents of healthier males elicited more tongue flicks (a chemosensory behavior) by females, suggesting that these scents were more attractive. Chemical analyses showed that parasite load and the T-cell-mediated immune response were related to the variability in the proportions of some lipids in secretions of males. Further trials testing the chemosensory responses of females to chemical standards indicated that females actually discriminated the chemicals related to males’ health from other chemicals found in secretions. We suggest that these chemical ornaments may provide reliable information on the health and degree of parasitic infection of a male.

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In the lizard Psammodromus algirus, larger and older males show orange nuptial coloration on most of the head and are dominant over smaller and younger, albeit sexually mature, males which do not show such extensive nuptial coloration. This raises the question of why young, small males delay the development of nuptial coloration until a later breeding season. We tested the hypothesis of social costs by manipulating the color of the head of small males. The results of agonistic interactions suggested that small males may pay a cost in terms of being punished by large males. Small males with heads painted orange were still recognized as small by other small males, suggesting that they would not gain in social status relative to normal, dull, small males. We also manipulated the coloration of large males. Small males showed a similar response toward all large males, independent of coloration. This suggests that in short-distance communication, males used other cues, such as body size and behavior, when judging fighting ability. In staged experiments without male competition, female acceptance of matings was influenced by male body size but not by coloration because large males were more successful in obtaining matings than were small males, and within each age/size category there was no difference in mating success between experimental and control males.

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We compared the escape behaviour of juvenile and adult Psammodromus algirus lizards, by using data of escape performance in the laboratory and field observations of escape behaviour. We specifically examined whether a differential escape response is a constraint of body size, or whether juveniles behave differently in order to maximize their escape possibilities taking into account their size-related speed limitations. In the laboratory, juvenile lizards were slower than adult lizards, and escaped during less time and to shorter distances, even when removing the effect of body size. In the field, juveniles allowed closer approaches and after a short flight usually did not hide immediately, but did so after successive short runs if the attack persists. Approach distance of juveniles was not affected by habitat, but initial and total flight distances were shorter in covered microhabitats. There was no significant effect of environmental temperature on approach and initial flight distances of juveniles. However, the total flight distances were significantly correlated with air temperatures.

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We examined the escape responses of a population of lizards (Psammodromus algirus) in relation to reasonal variation in the habitat caused by the presence or absence of leaves in deciduous shrubs under which the lizards seek refuge against predators, and, within a season, relative to the microhabitat occupied. Approach and flight distances of lizards were significantly longer in early spring (when most bushes were without leaves) than in summer. Within a season, approach and flight distances were also longer in microhabitats with less vegetation cover. Lizards ran to refuges (patches of leaf litter under bushes) similar in characteristics but further than the nearest one available from their initial location. This suggests that misleading the predator is also crucial to escaping successfully. Escape responses were independent of ambient temperature. Lizards showed flexibility in their antipredator behaviours that may be related to predation risk assessment.

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Males of many species show conspicuous breeding colours that are important for status signalling, but that may decrease crypsis and increase predation risk. However, prey may adjust their escape response, such that the optimal distance at which an animal starts to flee (approach distance) would be the point where the costs of staying exceed the cost of fleeing. We examined in the field the escape response of Psammodromus algirus lizards, to test the hypothesis that more conspicuous old males, showing orange nuptial coloration on most of the head, which presumably have a higher probability of being detected (i.e. increased costs of staying), have longer approach distances, independent of other environmental variables. As predicted, old brightly coloured males had significantly longer approach and flight distances than young dull males, and young males had longer ones than females. In contrast, neither the distance to the nearest refuge nor the air temperature when the lizards escaped were significantly different. In addition, although male and female lizards differed in their use of microhabitats, old and young males did not differ. We also found that old males guarding a female (i.e. increased costs of fleeing) had shorter approach distances than old males that were found alone.

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Theoretical models of escape behavior suggest that the optimal distance at which an animal starts to flee (approach distance) increases with distance to the refuge. However, the extent of reliance on refuges may strongly affect this relationship. The lizard Psammodromus algirus escapes a predator by fleeing into leaf litter, which is very abundant but not a safe refuge because the predator could still locate and capture a concealed lizard. We test the hypothesis that escape decisions of this lizard species are based on the conspicuousness of individuals and the type of refuge used, rather than on the distance to cover per se. A field study showed that approach distance was not significantly correlated with distance to available refuges or distance actually fled. However, the type of microhabitat and the type of refuge used influenced the approach distance. Lizards started to flee earlier in microhabitats where they were presumably more visible to potential predators. Lizards ran to refuges that were similar in quality to, but farther from, the nearest available one. A longer flight may be needed to mislead the predator. However, because fleeing may be costly, the flight distance should be optimized. Thus, lizards ran farther and faster when they fled through unsafe microhabitats. Lizards with a low body temperature have lower escape performance and their approach distances should be greater. However, although air temperature affected escape speed, it was not significantly correlated with approach distance or flight distance. The relatively low reliance on refuges by P. algirus indicated that the expected relationship between escape decision and distance to the refuge did not exist. However, the results indicate that P. algirus optimizes its escape decisions according to the costs of fleeing and the costs of remaining.

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Locomotor performance of lizards and its relationship to the ecology and morphology of the forms concerned has been well studied recently. Asymmetry of limbs might make the body unstable and make performance less effective. However, their effects on terrestrial locomotion remain almost unexplored. In this article, the escape performance of the lizard Psammodromus algirus running at high speed was related to hindlimb morphology and fluctuating asymmetry levels. Femur length was significantly shorter than crus length. However, absolute fluctuating asymmetry in femur length was significantly larger than in crus length. Asymmetry was not related to body or limb size, thus larger individuals or those with longer limbs did not have significantly greater fluctuating asymmetry. Neither body size nor the length of the limbs (femur or crus) were significantly related to any of the variables describing escape performance. However, escape performance was affected by femur-length fluctuating asymmetry, which resulted in significantly reduced overall escape speeds. In contrast, asymmetry in crus length did not affect escape performance. We discuss the possible basis of these alterations of locomotion, the relevance of reduced performance for the ecology of this species, and how individuals may compensate for the costs of asymmetry.

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Many prey signal to predators with the intention of deterring further pursuits. In the lizard Psammodromus algirus, individuals sometimes escape with noisy long runs on dry leaves, whereas on many other occasions they escape quietly and with short flights. We hypothesised that the duration of this noisy display might be considered as an auditory signal of their alertness and ability to escape directed to predators. We examined in the field the escape behaviour of the lizard P. algirus in response to a human observer acting as a predator and tested a series of predictions to analyse this hypothesis. During a noisy escape response, lizards escaped sooner and ran further and for a longer time, while passing potential refuges before hiding. Production of noise was not entirely dependent on environmental factors, such as temperature or microhabitat, and was not directed to warn conspecifics because most individuals were solitary. Lizards still made noise when concealed and in response to successive approaches, which might be interpreted as a signal of alertness to the predator approach. In addition, condition of individuals with noisy responses could be assessed from their ability to run further and for a longer time, and because, in contrast to quiet responses, speed and distance were not positively correlated with environmental temperature. Thus, they might be in a better condition or internal state because they were able to run at high speed under unfavourable conditions. We suggest that lizards with noisy escape responses might be honestly signalling their alertness and ability to escape to avoid being chased.

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Management of dehesas (i.e. oak woodland pastures) creates a patchwork of sectors that differ in their structure and composition of understorey vegetation. We analysed whether different management techniques affect the populations of several species of lizards (Podarcis hispanica, Psammodromus algirus, Psammodromus hispanicus, Acanthodactylus erythrurus, and Lacerta lepida). Multivariate analyses showed that lizards preferentially used forested areas with scrub while they avoided open herbaceous areas. The abundance of lizards increased when the understorey bushy vegetation increased. In contrast, grasslands or cereal fields were scarcely occupied even if holm oak trees (Quercus ilex) were present, apparently because low shrubs were scarce here. Therefore, some of the traditional management practices of dehesas may negatively affect lizard populations. These conclusions could have wider implications for the design of wildlife reserves within dehesas, which has been previously based on the umbrella species concept (e.g. some dehesas are managed for imperial eagle Aquila adalberti conservation), without considering habitat requirements of other representative animal groups.

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In spite of the importance of chemoreception in social organization of lizards, only a few studies have examined chemical composition of secretions of lizards. The secretion of the femoral glands of male lizards Psammodromus algirus contains 59 lipophilic compounds, mainly carboxylic acids between n-C9 and n-C20, and steroids (mainly campesterol, ergosterol and cholesterol), and minor components such as five alcohols, six aldehydes, squalene, α-tocopherol, ketones, and a furanone. These compounds were identified on the basis of mass spectra, obtained by GC–MS. Secretions of adult males of different age were different. Older lizards had secretions with relatively lower proportions of octadecadienoic, oleic and eicosatetraenoic acids, and higher proportions of campesterol, ergosterol, ergostenol, 4,4-dimethy-cholest-7-en-3-ol, and ergosta-5,22-dien-3-ol. These differences might allow conspecifics to get information on the age of the sender based on chemicals alone, which may have an important role in social behavior of this lizard.

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Interpopulational variation in sexual signals may lead to premating reproductive isolation and eventually may result in speciation. We explored the role of chemical cues secreted by the femoral glands of male lizards Psammdoromus algirus in chemosensory recognition between two distinct genetic lineages from Central Spain. We hypothesized that if there were differences in chemical sexual signals between lineages, these may result in differential recognition and mate preferences. This might lead to reproductive isolation, which would allow the observed morphological and genetic differences between lineages. Our results showed that males of each lineage secreted a singular mixture of compounds in their femoral secretions. However, females were apparently not able to discriminate the lineage of males by chemosensory cues or, alternatively, this discrimination may not be important for females. Moreover, females did not select or reject areas scent marked by males of their own vs. the other lineage. However, previous studies suggest that females might prefer scent of males with particular chemical characteristics that show interindividual variability but do not vary between lineages. Similarly, males did not discriminate between the scents of females of the two lineages, although they had greater chemosensory responses to scents of larger females. In contrast, males clearly discriminated the lineage of other males based on their scents alone, showing chemosensory and aggressive responses that were higher to scents of males of the other lineage. If males of the opposite lineage were more prone to be detected and excluded from a male territory due to their differences in chemical signals, this may probably impede the access of males of one lineage to females of the opposite lineage. This might result in reproductive isolation between lineages. We suggest that the current genetic divergence observed between lineages of P. algirus lizards may be mediated by intrasexual relationships among males, but not by female mate preferences. Significance statement Sexual signals often vary geographically to maximize their efficiency in communication under local conditions. Such variation may, however, affect recognition between individuals of different populations, resulting in reproductive isolation and speciation. We studied two populations (lineages) of a lizard with genetic and morphological differences. We found clear inter-lineage variation in chemical profiles of sexual signals of males. However, females did not recognize these differences by chemosensory cues and did not prefer or reject areas scent-marked by males of the two lineages. In contrast, males recognized and responded more aggressively toward scent of males of the opposite lineage. This might impede access of males of one lineage to females of the other. We suggest that the observed differences between lineages may result from partial reproductive isolation, which can be mediated by agonistic interactions between males rather than by female mate preferences.

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Chemical signals used in intraspecific communication are expected to evolve or to show phenotipic plasticity to maximize efficacy in the climatic conditions of a given environment. Elevational environmental gradients in mountains provide a good opportunity to test this hypothesis by examining variation in characteristics of signals in species found across different elevations with different climatic conditions. We analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) the lipophilic fraction of the femoral gland secretions of male lizards Psammodromus algirus (Fam. Lacertidae) from six localities located along a 2200 m elevational gradient at Sierra Nevada Mountains (SE Spain). There was elevational clinal variation in climatic variables, number of femoral pores and in the relative proportions of some classes of compounds (i.e., ethyl esters of fatty acids, waxy esters, and aldehydes) but not others. We discuss how this variation would result in different physicochemical properties of the entire femoral secretion, which might help optimize the efficacy of chemical signals under the particular microclimatic conditions at each elevation.

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In this work phylogenetic and phylogeoraphic analyses are conducted on the species Psammodromus algirus based on samples from the Iberian Peninsula and Morocco with the goal of resolving the controversy relative to this subject that exists in the literature. Four genes were used (12s, 16s, cytochrome b and NAD4) which were analysed one by one and concatenated in different combinations. The results differed from dataset to dataset if the trees were rooted; in the case of unrooted trees, the results were relatively congruent. The phylogenetic approach was thus not enough to resolve the addressed issues and reach satisfying conclusions regarding the species present biogeographic patterns. In order to address this issue a population approach was made with a larger number of samples. With the combined results from both approaches it was possible to propose an explanation for this species past migrations which is different from the ones presented in former publications. Furthermore, software was developed in the context of this thesis, which is very useful in phylogenetic/phylogeographic analyses. The program`s purpose is to make data matrix conversions (FASTA to Nexus to FASTA with several program requirements in mind) and concatenation (of up to five Nexus data files) an easy task, that anyone with minimum computer skills can easily use it. The chapter about this software is the content of a paper which is in press in at the time of writing this thesis. Finally, comments are weaved on the outcome of this thesis, and brief remarks are made on the future of the two main components of this work.

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Firsat record of Psammodromus algirus on Mallorca island.

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Reptiles, Amphibians and terrestrial Birds from the circum Sicilian Islands -- The study of the number of terrestrial bird species from the circum Sicilian Islands allowed to note a mean density (species/ln of area) of 4,45. This value increase with the surface in the Mediterranean islands (12,2 for the Island of Elba and 19,5 for Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica). The computation of the linear regression between In-area and In-species gives a slope around 0,26 but the corelation is poor r = 0.51). The subdivision of the island into two large groups (Archipelago of Eolie = 7 islands; and all the others, Egadi, Ustica. Pantelleria and Pelagia = 7 islands) gives a better correlation (r = 0,9 and 0,62). This probably depends on certain variables that are taken in consideration here. The altitude is not an important variable (r = 0,39) but the isolation degree and the distance from the continent are importants (r =-0,60 and r = -0,61). but the highest correlation is obtained between the number of species and the habitat’s diversity (r = 0,80). This is confirmed by the analysis of similarities between the islands. Many islands have not yet reached species saturation as can be seen from the actual exploration confronted to that of the authors. The study of the number of species of Amphibians and Reptiles does not give any of the correlations found for the terrestrial birds. Il can thus be retained that these taxa quickly reach saturation and that, given the low number of colonizing species, the relation between area and species is hardly relevant. These are probably populations that are not in equilibrium.

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The family Lacertidae encompasses more than 250 species distributed in the Palearctis, Ethiopis and Orientalis. Lacertids have been subjected in the past to several morphological and molecular studies to establish their phylogeny. However, the problems of convergent adaptation in morphology and of excessively variable molecular markers have hampered the establishment of well supported deeper phylogenetic relationships. Particularly the adaptations to xeric environments have often been used to establish a scenario for the origin and radiation of major lineages within lacertids. Here we present a molecular phylogenetic study based on two nuclear marker genes and representatives of 37 lacertid genera and distinct species groups (as in the case of the collective genus Lacerta). Roughly 1600 bp of the nuclear rag1 and c-mos genes were sequenced and analyzed. While the results provide good support to the hitherto suggested main subfamilies of Gallotiinae (Gallotia and Psammodromus), Eremiainae and Lacertinae [Harris, D.J., Arnold, E.N., Thomas, R.H., 1998. Relationships of lacertid lizards (Reptilia: Lacertidae) estimated from mitochondrial DNA sequences and morphology. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 265, 1939–1948], they also suggest unexpected relationships. In particular, the oriental genus Takydromus, previously considered the sister-group to the three subfamilies, is nested within Lacertinae. Moreover, the genera within the Eremiainae are further divided into two groups, roughly corresponding to their respective geographical distributions in the Ethiopian and the Saharo-Eurasian ranges. The results support an independent origin of adaptations to xeric conditions in different subfamilies. The relationships within the subfamily Lacertinae could not be resolved with the markers used. The species groups of the collective genus Lacerta show a bush-like topology in the inferred Bayesian tree, suggesting rapid radiation. The composition of the subfamilies Eremiainae and Lacertinae as well as their phylogeography are discussed.

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The collection of Amphibians and Reptiles of the Museum of Natural History of Ferrara has characteristics of historical representation, taxonomic and zoogeography that may be considered as examples of medium-sized types of collections more preva- lent in Italian museums. It consists of a historic part of the study and a donation from Guido Campadelli. The collection consists of 1739 specimens of amphibians (1734 of which held in 437 containers with ethanol and 5 taxidermized specimens) for a total of 78 amphibian species. There are 811 specimens of Reptiles (769 of which are stored in 526 containers with ethanol and 42 taxidermized specimens) representing a total of 108 species. The findings that form the collection of Amphibians come from 153 loca- lities of 15 states and 12 regions and 29 provinces of Italy. In the batrachological col- lection 62.1% of the total European species, and 94.3% of the total species in Italy, are represented. Zoogeographic regions most represented are the Palaearctic with 67% of the species of Amphibians in the collection and the Neotropical with 29%, fol- lowed by the Ethiopian (6%) and Nearctic (5%). Reptiles specimens come from 247 lo- calities of 15 states and 15 regions and 36 provinces of Italy. In the collection 46,2% of European species and 91,5% of the Italian ones are represented. The most represen- ted zoogeographic region are the Palaearctic with 89% of species in the collection, followed by the Ethiopian (14%), the Eastern (13%), Neotropical (11%) and the Nearctic (7%); australian and malagasy species do not exceed 3%. The herpetology collection was the subject of taxonomic and biogeographic analysis.

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Observational data collected from bibliography and during herpetological surveys in northern Morocco between 1989 and 2014 were plotted to generate updated distribution maps of amphibians and reptiles using a UTM 5 x 5 km grid system. Eleven amphibians and 53 reptiles were observed, including three amphibians and nine reptiles endemic to Morocco. In both taxonomic groups, three distinct species categories were identified in the area: widely distributed species, species restricted to particular environmental characteristics, and species with small and / or fragmented distributions. For total species richness, 10 areas of high diversity were identified. These areas were common to all taxonomic groups and correspond roughly to Mediterranean-type habitats. Amphibians constitute a relatively homogeneous group according to their habitat selection patterns while reptiles can be grouped in three assemblages: 1) generalist species with broad distributions in northern Morocco; 2) species occupying Mediterranean environments, generally abundant in the north-western region; and 3) species that occupy arid habitats, frequently found in the eastern region. The topographic complexity of northern Morocco apparently creates micro-environmental conditions for each group and is related to high levels of species diversity observed: 78% and 52% of the total number of amphibians and reptiles of Morocco, respectively. These findings strengthen the status of northern Morocco as a priority area for herpetofauna conservation at the national level

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Der Verfasser besuchte Tunesien Anfang April 1978 und berichtet von den Arten, die er da vorfand. Chalcides ocellatus und Tarentola mauritanica wurden häufig beobachtet, besonders in Sousse. Ertaunliche Mengen von mMauremys caspica leprosa wurden in dem kleinen Fluss ´Oued Hamdoun`bei Sousse gesehen, sie wurden aber auch in Kairouan und Gabès anagetroffen. Natrix maura wurde in Sousse und Kairouan immer im oder beim Wasser gesehen, oft ist dieses Wasser hier brackig. Zum Schluss gibt der Verfasser einen Determinationsschlüssel zu den tunesischen Amphibien-, Eidechsen- und Schildkrötenarten mit wissenscjaftlichen, französischen, niederländischen und manchmal auch arabischen Namen.

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Differences between air and ground temperatures are expected to narrow with the advance of the season in temperate regions (aka seasonal restriction in the availability of thermal microhabitats), which may activate behavioral and physiological responses of ectotherm species adapted to temperate climates. However, according to cost-benefit models of ectotherm thermoregulation, we hypothesize that these responses may also carry some costs. We quantified seasonal shifts in thermoregulatory precision, concentration of fecal glucocorticoid metabolites, and load of ectoparasites in a Mediterranean lizard, Psammodromus algirus. We also tested whether the proximity to a road, a putative source of chronic stress, can facilitate the glucocorticoid-mediated response of lizards to heat stress. As expected, differences between body and environmental temperatures narrowed during the reproductive season and lizards responded by increasing their thermoregulatory precision and the secretion of glucocorticoids, as indicated by metabolites in feces. Interestingly, lizards tended to have higher glucocorticoid concentration when captured far from the road. This might reflect either a putative impairment of the glucocorticoid-mediated response of the lizards to heat stress close to the road or the plastic capability of P. algirus to acclimate to sources of moderate chronic stress. In the latter direction, the increase of both glucocorticoid metabolites and thermoregulatory precision supported that this Mediterranean species responds to environmental thermal restrictions with adaptive behavioral and physiological mechanisms. However, this was also associated with an increase in its susceptibility to ectoparasites, which represents an added cost to the current cost-benefit models of ectotherm thermoregulation.

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1. Female and male hosts may maximise their fitness by evolving different strategies to compensate for the costs of parasite infections. The resulting sexual dimorphism might be apparent in differential relationships between parasite load and body condition, potentially reflecting differences in energy allocation to anti-parasitic defences. For example, male lacertids with high body condition may produce many offspring while being intensely parasitised. In contrast, female lacertids may show a different outcome of the trade-offs between body condition and immunity, aiming to better protect themselves from the harm of parasites. - 2. We predicted that females would have fewer parasites than males and a lower body condition across parasitaemia levels because they would invest resources in parasite defence to mitigate the costs of infection. In contrast, the male strategy to maximise access to females would imply some level of parasite tolerance and, thus, higher parasitaemia. - 3. We analysed the relationship between the body condition of lizards and the parasitemias of Karyolysus and Schellackia, two genera of blood parasites with different phylogenetic origins, in 565 females and 899 males belonging to 10 species of the Lacertidae (Squamata). These lizards were sampled over a period of 12?years across 34 sampling sites in southwestern Europe. - 4. The results concerning the Karyolysus infections were consistent with the predictions, with males having similar body condition across parasitaemia levels even though they had higher infection intensities than females. On the other hand, females with higher levels of Karyolysus parasitaemia had lower body condition. This is consistent with the prediction that different life strategies of male and female lacertids can explain the infection patterns of Karyolysus. In contrast, the parasitaemia of Schellackia was consistently low in both male and female hosts, with no significant effect on the body condition of lizards. This suggests that lizards of both sexes maintain this parasite below a pathogenic threshold.

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The genus Karyolysus was originally proposed to accommodate blood parasites of lacertid lizards in Western Europe. However, recent phylogenetic analyses suggested an inconclusive taxonomic position of these parasites of the order Adeleorina based on the available genetic information. Inconsistencies between molecular phylogeny, morphology, and/or life cycles can reflect lack of enough genetic information of the target group. We therefore surveyed 28 localities and collected blood samples from 828 lizards of 23 species including lacertids, skinks, and geckoes in the western Mediterranean, North Africa, and Macaronesia, where species of Karyolysus and other adeleorine parasites have been described. We combined molecular and microscopic methods to analyze the samples, including those from the host type species and the type locality of Karyolysus bicapsulatus. The phylogenetic relationship of these parasites was analyzed based on the 18S rRNA gene and the co-phylogenetic relationship with their vertebrate hosts was reconstructed. We molecularly detected adeleorine parasites in 37.9% of the blood samples and found 22 new parasite haplotypes. A phylogenetic reconstruction with 132 sequences indicated that 20 of the newly detected haplotypes clustered in a well-supported clade with another 18 sequences that included Karyolysus galloti and Karyolysus lacazei. Morphological evidence also supported that K. bicapsulatus clustered in this monophyletic clade. These results supported the taxonomic validity of the genus. In addition, we found some parasite haplotypes that infected different lizard host genera with ancient diverging histories, which suggested that Karyolysus is less host-specific than other blood parasites of lizards in the region. A co-phylogenetic analysis supported this interpretation because no significant co-speciation signal was shown between Karyolysus and lizard hosts.

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Ontogeny is expected to be a determinant factor affecting production of colour patches in lizards, while immune challenges or sudden weight loss may impair the maintenance of pigment-based coloration within a breeding season. We translocated males of the lizard Psammodromus algirus between two sampling plots that differed in distance to a road, vegetation structure, and predator abundance. We analysed variation in spectral reflectance of their colour patches the same and the following year. The change in the reflectance of the lizard colour patches within the first breeding season was explained by the interaction between plot and treatment, but not body condition. The maintenance of the breeding coloration was impaired only in those males translocated close to the road, probably reflecting that it is a poor-quality habitat for P. algirus. The following year, lizards that produced a more elaborate coloration were those that increased their body condition and controlled some parasitic infections, although suffered an increase of others. This study shows that colour patch production is plastic in P. algirus. Lizards increasing parasites or losing weight reduced pigmentation, although habitat quality can cushion these negative effects on pigmentation. However, not all parasites constrain the investment in coloration. In fact, some increased in those lizards that allocated more pigments to colour patches. In conclusion, longitudinal studies following experimental manipulation can contribute to understand pigment allocation rules in lizards.

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Report on two excursions to the Iberian Peninsula in 1981 and 1982: Pyrenees, Cantabrian Mountains, Galicia, Peneda-Geres (Portugal), Chaves (Northeast of Portugal), Monfragüe (Estremadura), Andalusia, East-Algarve, Toledo and Argeles sur Mer (South-France). A total of 37 species of amphibians and reptiles could be observed (urodelans 6, anurans 8, chelonians 1, lizards 14 and snakes 8). The visited areas are briefly characterized in terms of their herpetocoenosis. Information on habitat requirements, partly also on body measurements of the species recorded are given. New data on the range limits of Lacerta schreiberei, L. lepida, L. vivipara, L. monticola and Psammodromus algirus are given. A syntopic occurrence of Coronella austriaca and C. girondica in the Cantabrian Mountains was found. C. girondica is recorded for the first time in Asturia. A remarkable finding in the Cantabrian Mountains was a melanistic Aesculapian Snake (Elaphe longissima). This is the second record of this species in Spain. In these Northern Spanish highlands the breeding season of the amphibians is extended into summer. In North Portugal we observed Natrix maura eating Chioglossa lusitanica.

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Aim Body size is instrumental in influencing animal physiology, morphology, ecology and evolution, as well as extinction risk. I examine several hypotheses regarding the influence of body size on lizard evolution and extinction risk, assessing whether body size influences, or is influenced by, species richness, herbivory, island dwelling and extinction risk. Location World-wide. Methods I used literature data and measurements of museum and live specimens to estimate lizard body size distributions. Results I obtained body size data for 99% of the world`s lizard species. The body size–frequency distribution is highly modal and right skewed and similar distributions characterize most lizard families and lizard assemblages across biogeographical realms. There is a strong negative correlation between mean body size within families and species richness. Herbivorous lizards are larger than omnivorous and carnivorous ones, and aquatic lizards are larger than non-aquatic species. Diurnal activity is associated with small body size. Insular lizards tend towards both extremes of the size spectrum. Extinction risk increases with body size of species for which risk has been assessed. Main conclusions Small size seems to promote fast diversification of disparate body plans. The absence of mammalian predators allows insular lizards to attain larger body sizes by means of release from predation and allows them to evolve into the top predator niche. Island living also promotes a high frequency of herbivory, which is also associated with large size. Aquatic and nocturnal lizards probably evolve large size because of thermal constraints. The association between large size and high extinction risk, however, probably reflects a bias in the species in which risk has been studied.

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Aim Temperature influences most components of animal ecology and life history – but what kind of temperature? Physiologists usually examine the influence of body temperatures, while biogeographers and macroecologists tend to focus on environmental temperatures. We aim to examine the relationship between these two measures, to determine the factors that affect lizard body temperatures and to test the effect of both temperature measures on lizard life history. Location World-wide. Methods We used a large (861 species) global dataset of lizard body temperatures, and the mean annual temperatures across their geographic ranges to examine the relationships between body and mean annual temperatures.We then examined factors influencing body temperatures, and tested for the influence of both on ecological and life-history traits while accounting for the influence of shared ancestry. Results Body temperatures and mean annual temperatures are uncorrelated. However, accounting for activity time (nocturnal species have low body temperatures), use of space (fossorial and semi-aquatic species are ‘colder’), insularity (mainland species are ‘hotter’) and phylogeny, the two temperatures are positively correlated. High body temperatures are only associated with larger hatchlings and increased rates of biomass production. Annual temperatures are positively correlated with clutch frequency and annual longevity, and negatively correlated with clutch size, age at first reproduction and longevity. Main conclusions Lizards with low body temperatures do not seem to have ‘slower’ life-history attributes than species with high body temperatures. The longer seasons prevalent in warm regions, and physiological processes that operate while lizards are inactive (but warm enough), make environmental temperatures better predictors of lizard life-history variation than body temperatures. This surprisingly greater effect of environmental temperatures on lizard life histories hints that global warming may have a profound influence on lizard ecology and evolution.

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The authors present an actualized and commented list of the amphibia and reptilia species noted in Morocco. The changes witch happened during the 16years after the last checklist established by BoNS(1972) are discussed. These are new additions (species recently discovered in Morocco and new taxa for Science, sorne of witch resulting from systematic modifications of other species or subspecies) and changes of names (new combinations) or status. Problems concerning the exact delimitation of several species are discussed, insisting particularly on the most conflictual groups (e.g. Chalcides, Aoenthodactylus). Thus we think that the number of species in the present checklist is probably surestimated. Taking in account these problems, we must consider this inventory as provisional, till clearing up the several questions still in suspense.

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This note describes general patterns of winter activity in lizard populations along a latitudinal gradient with an approximate range of twelve degrees (26 to 38°N) in southern Europe and North Africa. We make use of qualitative data gathered through the last ten years in the area, as well as much more accurate quantitative data obtained from periodic censuses covering the whole year cicle in certain populations. Results allow us to impute a great importance to the activity observed in the unfavourable season. This activity seems to be an attribute at the population level and shows a great variability between and within species and populations.

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Aim To infer the biogeographical and evolutionary history of the Western Mediterranean Psammodromus lizards with the aim of assessing the role of vicariance and dispersal on the cladogenetic events within the palaeogeological dynamics of the Strait of Gibraltar. Location North Africa and Western Europe. Methods We built a dataset including all six species of Psammodromus using mitochondrial (12S, cytb, nd4) and nuclear (acm4, mc1r, pomc) gene fragments. Species tree and concatenation methods were used to infer phylogenetic relationships and divergence times. Phylogenies were used for biogeographical inference using S-DIVA, DEC and BBM. Results Psammodromus probably originated in Iberia, with P. algirus diverging early. The ancestor of the African P. blanci and P. microdactylus dispersed to Africa through the Betic-Rif massif, c. 10 Ma. The cladogenetic events within Africa and Iberia were probably due to vicariance mediated by habitat and climatic changes at the end of the Miocene (P. blanci and P. microdactylus) and during the Pliocene (P. occidentalis, P. hispanicus and P. edwardsianus). Psammodromus algirus shows three lineages, two in Iberia and one in Africa, the latter originated following a transmarine dispersal during the Middle Pleistocene (1.5 Ma). Main conclusions Over-sea dispersal has played a major role in intercontinental exchange and divergence in Psammodromus, with two dispersal events towards Africa that occurred 10 and 1.5 Ma resulting in the African lineages. This study, combined with previous literature, provides compelling evidence that major biotic exchanges took place across the Strait of Gibraltar well before or long after the land connection during the Messinian Salinity Crisis (MSC, 5.9–5.33 Ma). These findings suggest caution in the application of the relatively short event of Atlantic flooding at the end of the MSC as cause for divergence in molecular clock calibrations, which is a popular approach in literature.

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Sexual signals serve as an honest indicator of individual quality, reflecting either developmental and/or maintenance costs. A possible underlying physiological mechanism is oxidative stress, which could mediate energy trade-offs between sexual signals and other quality traits. In ectotherms, thermal performance acts as a key indicator of individual quality and influence signal intensity. We investigated how oxidative state is reflected in visual signals of lizards from different thermal habitats. According to our hypothesis, efficient thermoregulation requires different strategies in different thermal environments. In a habitat with predictable temperature changes, animals are less exposed to suboptimal temperature ranges and selection will, therefore, be stronger on the maximum oxidative damage at optimal body temperature. Contrarily, in a habitat with rather stochastic thermal shifts, individuals are often constricted by suboptimal thermal conditions, and oxidative damage can be limiting on a wide temperature range. We used Iberolacerta cyreni and Psammodromus algirus inhabiting stochastic and predictable thermal environments respectively. We examined two aspects of oxidative stress: the level of reactive oxygen metabolites at the preferred temperature (maximal ROM) and the temperature range in which animals produce at least 80% of the maximum level of reactive oxygen metabolites (effective ROM range). In I. cyreni, we found that duller coloration was related to a wider effective ROM range, while expression of coloration in P. algirus was negatively correlated with the maximal ROM. Our results suggest that different thermal constraints affect different aspects of oxidative damage which can indicate individual quality and are, therefore, represented in sexual ornaments.

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The variation in the reproductive cycle of three populations of the lizard Psammodromus algirus living in coastal sandy areas of NE Spain was analyzed. In contrast with those in continental climates, they showed evidence of reproductive stress: the reproductive season began sooner and was longer. Moreover, body size was smaller and sexual size dimorphism did not arise. Only the end of the breeding period was relatively constant. Nevertheless, these different reproductive traits seem to follow a common trend. In general, no important reproductive differences were found among the three coastal areas. Females laying two clutches have been detected in one locality. Clutch size was correlated with female size. The high phenological plasticity of this species is associated with its wide ecological niche.

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Psammodromus algirus’ dorsal colouration varies along an altitudinal gradient in Sierra Nevada (Spain). An observed parallel variation in ground colour suggests this variation could be due to crypsis. To examine this possibility, we sampled the colouration of the lizards and environmental elements in populations at different elevations along the gradient. Then, we analysed the relation between lizards’ colouration and the colour of their environment as well as their relation to lizards’ biological features. Results evidenced crypsis being in play and varying along the gradient. Inter-population differences in the degree of crypsis appear to be determined by differences among populations in predation pressure or in relative importance of other selective pressures over colouration (thermoregulation and UV-protection). On the other hand, intra-population variance could be the result of the presence of mixed strategies in response to predators (crypsis or fleeing), associated to differences in behaviour and metabolic resource allocation according to the lizard condition (tail regeneration and female gravidity).

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Local adaptation and range restrictions in alpine environments are central topics in biogeographic research with important implications for predicting impacts of global climate change on organisms. Temperature is strongly coupled to elevation and greatly affects life history traits of oviparous reptiles in mountain environments. Thus, species may encounter barriers for expanding their ranges if they are unable to adapt to the changing thermal conditions encountered along elevational gradients. We sought to determine whether thermal requirements for embryonic development provide a plausible explanation for elevational range limits of two species of lacertid lizards that have complementary elevational ranges in a Mediterranean mountain range (Psammodromus algirus is found at elevations below 1600 m and Iberolacerta cyreni is found at elevations above 1600 m). We combined experimental incubation of eggs in the laboratory with modelled estimates of nest temperature in the field. In both species, increasing temperature accelerated development and produced earlier hatching dates. The species associated with warmer environments (P. algirus) experienced an excessive hatching delay under the lowest incubation temperature. Moreover, newborns from eggs incubated at low temperatures showed poor body condition and very slow rates of postnatal growth. In contrast, eggs of the strictly alpine species I. cyreni exhibited shorter incubation periods than P. algirus that allowed hatching before the end of the active season even under low incubation temperatures. This was countered by lower reproductive success at higher temperatures, due to lower hatching rates and higher incidence of abnormal phenotypes. Elevational range limits of both species coincided well with threshold temperatures for deleterious effects on embryonic development. We suggest that incubation temperature is a major ecophysiological factor determining the elevational range limits of these oviparous lizards with predictable consequences for mountain distributions under future warmer climates.

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In the municipality of Gava, there is currently a total of 25 species of amphibians and reptiles (one of the order Urodela, eight of the order Anura, two of the genus Chelonia, seven of the clade Sauria and seven of the suborder Serpentes). Two of the species – Trachemys scripta and Discoglossus pictus – were introduced in recent times. Worthy of note is the presence of the last-known population of the Western Spadefoot (Pelobates cultripes) in the municipalities of the deltaic plain, and the location of the last population of the Natterjack Toad (Bufo calamita) on the same plain. The location of the Discoglossus pictus in the municipality of Gava is indicative of the expansion of this species, which was introduced in 2004 into the municipality of el Prat de Llobregat.