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Organisms face numerous environmental stressors, which can affect developmental precision, including symmetry of various physical characteristics. Fluctuating asymmetry (FA) has therefore been suggested as a simple and efficient tool for assessing sub-lethal stress levels. We analyzed FA in two sympatric lizard species (Iberolacerta horvathi and Podarcis muralis) to determine potential effects of interspecific competition and urbanization, as proxies of stress, taking into account sexual dimorphism and environmental conditions. We sampled 16 syntopic and allotopic populations and used geometric morphometrics of head morphology. We detected significant but mixed effects on the head asymmetry from the environment and the syntopic occurrence that differed between species. P. muralis lizards had more asymmetric heads at higher altitudes, while I. horvathi lizards did at mid altitudes, which may be explained by P. muralis experiencing environmental stress of colder conditions at higher altitudes. The mid-altitude effect on asymmetries in I. horvathi might be explained by a lower availability of stony walls and higher abundance of P. muralis, thus higher competition. The asymmetry of supraciliary granules was affected by the presence of other species. However, lizards from allotopic populations attained larger asymmetries compared to lizards from syntopic populations, which was the opposite from what was expected. There was no effect of urbanization in P. muralis, which could be due to relatively low pollution and habitat degradation in study locations. Overall, we highlighted the possibility of using lizards and FA for bioindication of environmental stressors and especially improved the knowledge gap in the research of biotic stressors.

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We analysed asymmetry in the common wall lizard (Podarcis muralis) and the Horvath`s rock lizard (Iberolacerta horvathi) from 16 populations in Slovenia and Croatia to understand their connection with potential stress factors: altitude, urbanization and the presence of another species (interspecific competition). We also compared morphological body characteristics between the two species. We used geometric morphometric methods to create landmark coordinates in the photographs of lizards` heads. Modified ANOVAs and an asymmetry index were used to find the differences in four physical characteristics: shape and size of the head, body size and the number of supraciliar scales. We found fluctuating asymmetry in the number of supraciliar scales and the shape of the head in all of our samples. Both species had more asymmetric heads in the intermediate altitudes, which might be connected with lower availability of suitable habitats. Common wall lizards from urban environment did not have more asymmetries compared to those living in natural environments. Contrary to our expectations, we found more asymmetries in allotopic than syntopic populations, indicating limited effect of interspecific interactions. Horvath`s rock lizards had more asymmetric heads, which suggests they might be exposed to greater environmental stress, although genetic effects are also possible, since directional asymmetry was also detected.

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The ability to shed (autotomize) all or part of the tail, usually in response to predator attack, and often to subsequently regenerate it is widespread in lizards and amphisbaenians and also occurs in a few snakes and in the tuatara. Most species possess a sophisticated intravertebral autotomy mechanism which seems to be primitive in the Squamata. This appears to have been independently lost in members of many groups, but some agamids and snakes have regained the ability to shed their tails by a simpler intervertebral means and a -number of agamids have also redeveloped tail regeneration as well. Breakable tails are used to evade capture in two main ways: by enabling reptiles to break away from predators that have grasped them by the tail and by providing a distraction which deflects the attention of the attacker away from the vulnerable head and body. It is argued that loss of caudal autotomy has occurred when the costs of tail shedding outweigh its benefits. Likely costs include the expense of regrowing the tail and the loss of a variety of possible tail functions that may cause partial incapacitation, at least until the tail regenerates. Benefits of autotomy are liable to be low if predation is rare, if the animal is able to protect itself effectively in other ways, if it is too slow to evade further pursuit after the tail is shed, or if the tail is small or unpalatable and consequently not likely to distract a predator. Benefit variation may well be greater than cost variation and therefore more important in initiating the loss of autotomy mechanisms. Many taxa that do not shed the tail appear to conform to the above interpretation, but in some cases, such as the Platynota, Agamidae and Chamaeleonidae, lack of intravertebral autotomy may reflect the history of these groups rather than being a direct result of present ecological pressures. The distribution of intervertebral autotomy in the Agamidae suggests that it may have evolved only in rather special circumstances where tail fragility is advantageous even in the absence of the ability to regenerate. Restriction ot autotomy planes to the tail-base, so that the whole organ is lost, a condition found in a number of relatively slow-moving geckoes, is interpreted as a means of ensuring that enough of the tail is shed to distract a predator from further pursuit. The stimulus necessary to induce autotomy can vary rapidly in individual lizards and at least some of these changes probably maximize the effectiveness of the tail-shedding mechanism. Differences in the readiness with which all or part of the tail is shed exist between species and are likely to reflect the balance of costs and benefits in particular cases. Variations in incidence of broken tails between species and populations may be due to such differences in fragility but many other factors may play a part, including the age structure of samples, incidence of unsuccessful attacks by predators and ability to evade predators after autotomy. There is a clear tendency for climbing lizards, especially those living on rock surfaces, to have higher incidences of broken tails than ground-dwelling species, perhaps because the tail is usually less important in locomotion in the first group. Many lizards possess conspicuously coloured tails and tail movements that seem likely to help distract attention from the head and body. Conspicuous tail colouring is more frequent and often better developed in young animals, which tend to be more vulnerable than adults, and in active species from open habitats where crypsis may not always be very effective. Conspicuous tails usually have contrasting light and dark areas in nocturnal forms but are often a single bright colour in diurnal ones, probably reflecting the visual capacities of their respective predators. The predominance of blue tails in day-active species may be because this colour is striking close to but not very arresting at a distance, so it may not attract predators from far away while still drawing their attention at close quarters.

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Twenty-four species of lacertid lizards were examined at 31 sites in western Yogoslavia, Greece and Iberia. Comparative observations were made on over 4500 individual lizards, noting such features as times of activitiy, hunting methods, diet, micro- and macrohabitat, refuges used and body temperature. These data are used as a basis for assessing resource partition in related sympatric species, for find out whether different systematic groups have characteristic types of niche, and for comparing cumminity structures in the peninsulas of southern Europa. Acanthodactylus erythrurus, Algyroides marchi, Algyroides moreoticus, Algyroides nigropunctatus, Lacerta agilis, Lacerta graeca, Lacerta horvathi, Lacerta lepida, Lacerta monticola, Lacerta oxycephala, Lacerta mosorensis, Lacerta schreiberi, Lacerta trilineata, Lacerta viridis, Lacerta vivipara, Podarcis bocagei, Podarcis erhardii, Podarcis hispanica, Podarcis melisellensis, Podarcis milensis, Podarcis muralis, Podarcis peloponnesiaca, Podarcis sicula, Podarcis taurica, Psammodromus algirus, Psammodromus hispanicus.

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DNA sequence indicates the Lacertidae contain two subfamilies, Gallotiinae and Lacertinae, the latter comprising two monophyletic tribes, the Eremiadini of Africa and arid southwest and central Asia, and the Lacertini of Europe, northwest Africa and southwest and east Asia. Relationships within the 108 species of Lacertini are explored using mtDNA (291 bp cytochrome b; 329 bp 12S rRNA for 59 nominal species, and reanalysis of the data of Harris et al. 1998, and Fu 2000). The morphology of the tribe is reviewed and 64 of its characters (equivalent to 83 binary ones) also used to assess relationships. The Lacertini are assigned to 19 monophyletic units of 1 to 27 species, recognised here as the following genera (contents are indicated in brackets): Algyroides, Anatololacerta gen. nov. (L. danfordi group), Apathya (L. cappadocica group), Archaeolacerta (L. bedriagae), Dalmatolacerta gen. nov. (L. oxycephala), Darevskia (L. saxicola group), Dinarolacerta gen. nov. (L. mosorensis), Hellenolacerta gen. nov. (L. graeca), Iberolacerta (L. monticola group), Iranolacerta gen. nov. (L. brandtii and L. zagrosica), Lacerta s. str. (sand and green lizards, L. agilis group), Parvilacerta gen. nov. (L. parva and L. fraasii), Phoenicolacerta gen. nov. (L. laevis group), Podarcis (wall lizards), Scelarcis (L. perspicillata), Takydromus (Asian grass lizards), Teira (L. dugesii), Timon (ocellated lizards, L. lepida group) and Zootoca (L. vivipara). Both mtDNA and morphology indicate that Lacerta and Timon are sister taxa, and DNA suggests further possible relationships among genera (Fig. 1, p. 6). Neither DNA nor morphology indicates that the archaeolacertas (sometimes formalised as Archaeolacerta sens. lat.) form a clade. Instead, they are representatives of an ecomorph associated with living on rock exposures and using the narrow crevices that these contain. The Lacertidae probably arose in the European area, with the Gallotiinae later reaching Northwest Africa and the Canary Islands, and the ancestor of the Eremiadini invading Africa in the mid-Miocene. The Lacertini spread through much of their present European range and diversified, perhaps largely by repeated vicariance, around 12–16 My ago, producing the ancestors of the present mainly small-bodied genera, which then underwent often modest speciation. Three units spread more widely: the Lacerta-Timon clade of large-bodied lizards probably dispersed earliest, followed by Algyroides and then Podarcis. Overall, European Lacertidae show a pattern of repeated spread, often accompanied by restriction of previous groups. Expansion of Lacertini may have displaced earlier lacertid lineages from all or much of Europe; while spread of Podarcis may have restricted many other genera of Lacertini. The earlier expansion of the Lacerta-Timon clade probably did not have this effect, as difference in adult body size restricted competitive interaction with other forms. Several invasions of more distant areas also occurred: of East Asia by Takydromus over 10 My ago, and more recently of northwest Africa by Podarcis, Scelarcis and Timon, and Madeira by Teira. Relationships within the Eremiadini estimated from both mtDNA, and nDNA differ considerably from those based on morphology. They indicate relatively mesic forms may have diversified widely across Africa and given rise to at least three independent invasions of arid habitats. MtDNA also indicates that Lacerta andreanskyi belongs in the Eremiadini and may occupy a basal position there. It is assigned to a further new genus, Atlantolacerta gen. nov.

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The hemipenis of all the Iberolacerta species is studied. Overall morphology is very similar among the different species. Hemipenes are symmetrically bilobed, with the apical section shorter than the basal one (I. galani, I. cyreni, I. monticola monticola, I. horvathi, I. bonnali, I. aranica and I. aurelioi) or subequal or with slightly inverted proportions (I. m. astur and I. martinezricai). All are similarly sized and proportional to the animal’s SVL, except in I. aurelioi (and perhaps to a lesser extent in I. horvathi) that have notably small hemipenes. Concerning the hemipenial microornamentation, all the Iberolacerta s. str. (I. monticola, I. galani, I. martinezricai, I. cyreni and I. horvathi) have hemipenial microornamen-tation of crown-shaped tubercles, more or less elongated with a series or a crown of small spinules in their apex. Among these, isolate odd shaped tubercles can appear, probably corresponding to immature states that do not reach their complete development. The Pyrenean species (subgenus Pyrenesaura) are variable. Iberolacerta bonnali and I. aranica have mainly spiny-like tubercles (among which some crown shaped can appear), whereas I. aurelioi presents crown-shaped microornamentation (with scattered spiny-like, as occur in other Iberolacerta species). Our hypothesis is that crown shaped models are derived (or more mature, following an ontogenetic criterion) in respect to the spiniform ones, but some spiny (or finger-shaped) can be secondary reversals by incomplete maturation. These secondary derived and the original primitive spiny-shaped ones are very difficult if not impossible to distinguish. Phenomena as the heterochronies could be beneath these reversals in maturation.

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The microornamentation of the scales (oberhautchen) has been studied by means of enamel casts (in negative), or with detached skin pieces (positive cast in the upper face or negative in their lower face of the scales) and its observation by transparency with optical microscopy at 40x, 400x and 1000x. In this study we have found a remarkable uniformity in all genera of Lacertini studied (already known, although significantly expanding the number of species previously studied). In light of the results obtained, it seems that the use of the microornamentation of the scales in taxonomy is limited. There is a remarkable degree of variation and probably of homoplasy, as it happens in so many characters of Lacertini. Nor is it clearly linked to certain conditions of the environment, although it may have a certain importance in mechanisms such as evapotranspiration and perhaps in the crypsis through its influence on the reflectance of the scales. These scales can present protuberances (like small tubercles) on their surface (derived character) in Algyroides (the four species), and in the case of Algyroides marchi also seems to present small pits on its scale surface. In most lacertids the cells of the “oberhautchen” are usually narrow (or short anteroposteriorly, if preferred), between 1 and 4 μm, having the appearance of ribbons or transverse straps. Smaller sizes (derivated) appear more or less marked in Algyroides spp, Darevskia praticola complex, Parvilacerta spp and in Dinarolacerta mosorensis (although not in D. montenegrina) and is difficult to interpret. Except in Dinarolacerta, in the other species it coincides that they are ground or ground-rock interface species, and the coarser stripes could have to do with reflectance (imitating the vegetation or the medium between which they move, according to the hypothesis of Allam et al.). In the case of Dinarolacerta, very saxicolous, it is probably the sister group of Algyroides and the common morphology could have a phylogenetic origin linked to its relationship with Algyroides. There is also no relationship with moisture since some come from dry places and others are from very wet areas. The posterior flange of the cells may be slightly mounted in the next cell (primitive character) but appears quite raised (derived character) in Algyroides nigropunctatus (much less in A. moreoticus and A. marchi, and apparently little or nothing in A. fitzingeri). The rear flange of the cells can be smooth, corrugated or notched. In our samples, irregular (and even dentate) posterior ridges appear in numerous Darevskia such as D. derjugini, D. parvula, D. raddei complex [D. raddei raddei, D. r. vanensis and D. nairensis], in part of the group of D. rudis [D. rudis sspp. and D. bithynica sspp.], several Iberolacerta (I. bonnali, I. horvathi and I. monticola astur), as well as in Teira dugesii. The character appears, although less marked in Algyroides (more in A. moreoticus, but less marked or barely visible in the others), in Hellenolacerta graeca, and other Iberolacerta (I. aurelioi, I. martinezricai, and scarcely marked in I. cyreni). Very little marked in Darevskia mixta, somewhat more in D. dryada and none in D. clarkorum, and also appears in the group of D. saxicola (D. saxicola, D. brauneri brauneri, D. b. darevskii, D. lindholdmi, D. szczerbaki), Dalmatolacerta oxycephala, Dinarolacerta mosorensis (only in the Biokovo sample, and not in Durmitor or D. montenegrina), Apathya cappadocica, in some places of the scales of Parvilacerta fraasii (but not in P. parva) and very little in D. (p) hungarica; also in the remaining group of D. rudis (D. valentini valentini, D. v. lantzicyreni, D. rudis bolkardaghica, D. portschinskii), and some parthenogenetic species (D. armeniaca, D. dahli, D. rostombekowi) but not in D. unisexualis, D. uzzelli, D. sapphirina, D. bendimahiensis or in the triploid hybrid between D. unisexualis and D. nairensis. In these parthenogenetic species it seems a general rule that the character of the crenulation or irregularity of the posterior flange of the cells resembles that of the paternal rather than the maternal species. The exception is the triploid hybrid [arisen from the hybridization of D. unisexualis (parthenogenetic female, without the character) and a male of D. nairensis (with fairly developed character)] that lacks character, and in this case is more similar to the maternal species of which has two genetic sets compared to only one of the paternal one.

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Kroatien ist eines der herpetologisch artenreichsten Länder Europas und daher ein beliebtes Reiseziel mitteleuropäischer Herpetologen. Aufgrund des in den letzten Jahrzehnten stetig weiter ausgebauten Autobahnnetzes ist das Land gut und schnell zu bereisen, lediglich die Grenzwartezeiten an den Urlaubswochenenden sind noch einigermaßen mühsam, da Kroatien noch nicht im Schengen-Raum aufgenommen wurde. Viele im Rahmen der ÖGH oder Herpetofauna.at durchgeführten Exkursionen führten uns in den letzten Jahren nach Kroatien.

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The authors give a description of the herpetofauna of some area´s in Yougoslavia they visited in june 1979. Some attention is given to the habitat of several species. The differences between certain island and mainland populations of some Lacerta- and Podarcis-species are discussed to some extend.

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In connectivity conservation and ecological network planning, the selection of focal fragmentationsensitive species represents a priority step. Nevertheless, despite their strategic role, selection of focal species has traditionally been carried out using charismatic and/or non objective approaches. In this way, actions of planning and conservation could be ineffective. Using as a case study Italian reptiles, we apply an expert-based approach for the selection of focal species on the basis of sensitivity to components of habitat fragmentation (habitat area reduction, increase of habitat isolation, increase of edge effect and landscape matrix disturbance) and of intrinsic ecological traits of the species (trophic level, dispersal ability, body size, niche breadth, rarity). The threshold values for each component of fragmentation defined a set of 21 focal species that can be divided into the three macro-components of human-induced habitat fragmentation (HIHF) towards which they show a sensitivity, the suitable spatial scale of populations and relative suitable habitat categories. Among these species, seven can be sampled easily with standard, low-cost field protocols. The selected species largely coincide with the species known in literature as fragmentation-sensitive.

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The Herpetological Collection of the Trieste Natural History Museum has almost 700 specimens of European Sauria belonging to about 33 taxa, including all the lacertids of northern Adriatic re- gions. The origin of the collection dates back to the foundation of the Museum of Trieste in 1846, but it was increased mainly between 1871 and 1939. The Herpetological Collection of the Trieste Natural History Museum has a great scientific and historical importance; it documents the varia- tion of the composition and distribution of northern Adriatic Sauria fauna during this century, in- cluding endemic varieties typical of little islands.

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A phylogenetic-comparative approach was used to assess and refine existing secondary structure models for a frequently studied region of the mitochondrial encoded large subunit (16S) rRNA in two large lizard lineages within the Scincomorpha, namely the Scincidae and the Lacertidae. Potential pairings and mutual information were analyzed to identify site interactions present within each lineage and provide consensus secondary structures. Many of the interactions proposed by previous models were supported, but several refinements were possible. The consensus structures allowed a detailed analysis of rRNA sequence evolution. Phylogenetic trees were inferred from Bayesian analyses of all sites, and the topologies used for maximum likelihood estimation of sequence evolution parameters. Assigning gamma-distributed relative rate categories to all interacting sites that were homologous between lineages revealed substantial differences between helices. In both lineages, sites within helix G2 were mostly conserved, while those within helix E18 evolved rapidly. Clear evidence of substantial site-specific rate variation (covarion-like evolution) was also detected, although this was not strongly associated with specific helices. This study, in conjunction with comparable findings on different, higher-level taxa, supports the ubiquitous nature of site-specific rate variation in this gene and justifies the incorporation of covarion models in phylogenetic inference.

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Im Untersuchungsgebiet in den Lienzer Dolomiten (Kärnten, Österreich) kommen Iberolacerta horvathi (MÉHELY, 1904) und Podarcis muralis (LAURENTI, 1768) zwischen 714 und 1285 m ü. M. sympatrisch, zwischen 919 und 1057 m syntop vor. Rund 10 % der Eidechsenstandorte sind von beiden Arten etwa 50 % bzw. 40 % nur von P. muralis bzw. I. horvathi besetzt. Die beobachteten Individuendichten liegen bei I. horvathi mehrfach höher als bei P. muralis. Die felsig-steinigen Eidechsenhabitate – vom glatten, steilen Fels bis zur porösen, flachen Schutthalde – wurden nach ihrer Kompaktheit, Höhe, Neigung, Spaltenbildung und Oberflächenstruktur vier Typen zugeordnet, zu deren Besiedlung unterschiedliche Kletterfähigkeiten erforderlich sind. Auf dem glatten steilen Felsformationen kam nur I. horvathi vor, auf Schuttflächen nahezu ausschließlich P. muralis, Übergangsformen konnten beide Arten beherbergen.

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The dietary habits of Lacerta horvathi MÉHELY, 1904, from the Tarvisio Forest (Carnic Alps, Province of Udine) were studied using faecal pellet analysis. 81 specimens were analyzed for prey remnants in tlieir faecal pellets. The sexes did not differ significantly in terms of SVL (one-way ANOVA: P < 0.30), but males were larger than females. Lacerta horvathi fed mainly upon Opiliones and Araneae, while the proportion of insects was quite low. Both mean number of prey items per faecal pellet and food niche breadth was higher in males than in females and juveniles, but the differences between the three classes were not statistically significant. Compared with several other lacertid species, L. horvathi seems to be much less a food generalist. In fact, it is strongly specialized in preying upon grounddwelling arthropods. Furthermore, the prey types eaten suggest that this lizard is an active forager, as expected in small-sized rupicolous lacertids.

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Flight initiation distance in relation to substratum type, sex, reproductive status and tail condition was studied in two lacertid lizards with contrasting habits: the ground-dwelling common lizard Zootoca vivipara and the rupicolous Horvath`s rock lizard Iberolacerta horvathi. These species were studied in sympatric populations in a mountain area in North-Eastern Italy, Tarvisio Forest. Mean escape distance was significantly higher in I. horvathi than in Z. vivipara. In both species there were significant differences between sexes, with males escaping at longer distances than females but there were no significant differences between adults and subadults. In both species there were no differences in escape distance of females in different reproductive states. In Z. vivipara specimens with broken tails escaped at a shorter distance than individuals with intact tails. Substratum type had a significant effect on escape distance in both species.

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The chromosomes of Lacerta horvfthi have been studied by means of conventional, C-banding, and silver-NOR techniques. The karyotype of this species, characterized by 36 acrocentric macrochromo- somes, lacks the typical pair of microchromosomes shared by all other lacertid lizards. It is hypothesized that the microchromosomes could have been translocated to the large elements of the karyotype. The occurrence of such a rearrangement in the chromosome complement ofL. horvhthi underlines its isolation from the other species of the subgenus Archaeolacerta. The C-banding analysis evidences the existence of a female sex heteromorphism in which the W-chromosome has the same shape and size of the Z, but differs from it in being completely heterochromatic. The nucleolar organizer regions (NORs) are located on a pair of medium size chromosomes in subtelomeric position, where the standard Giemsa-staining reveals secondary constrictions.

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West European Rock lizards, Lacerta (Iberolacerta) have small widely separated ranges in highland areas. Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences corroborate the monophyly of the group and show it is not closely related to any of the other Rock lizards with which it was formerly placed in Archaeolacerta, an assemblage for which there is no evidence of clade status. L. (Iberolacerta) consists of four main units: L. (I.) horvathi of NW Croatia and neighbouring regions; the Pyrenees species, L. (I.) bonnali, L. (I.) aranica and L. (I.) aurelioi; L. (I.) cyreni of the Iberian Sistema Central, with distinctive populations in the Sierras de Béjar,Gredos and Guadarrama; and L. (I.) monticola of the Serra da Estrela of Central Portugal and NWSpain, this unit also contains L. (I.) cyreni martinezricai of La Peña de Francia, W. Spain and a distinctive population in the Montañas de Sanabria. L. (Iberolacerta) has persisted in some mountain ranges for at least 4.2±1.4Ma and may have been restricted tomountains by competition from Wall lizards (Podarcis). Its clade status shows it has lost range extensively and has produced few external branches since its initial fragmentation. In contrast, Podarcis diversified about the time L. (Iberolacerta) fragmented, producing a series of widespread lineages that have persisted until the present time. The mainly European subfamily Lacertinae, to which both L. (Iberolacerta) and Podarcis belong, diversified rapidly 13–9 Ma ago, probably largely replacing other lacertid lizards of earlier origin. As another round of replacement started at approximately 9 Ma ago with the spread of Podarcis, this may be a recurrent phenomenon in the evolution of some lizard communities.

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We discuss three aspects of the thermal biology of lacertid lizards. First, we provide an overview of the available data on field body temperatures (Tb), the thermal sensitivity of various performance functions and selected body temperatures in different species of lacertid lizards. We also briefly summarise information on the mechanisms of thermoregulation. Second, we discuss recent developments to estimate the »precision« of thermoregulation, and the contribution of distinct behavioural mechanisms. Finally, we revise available evidence for the existence of evolutionary adjustments of thermal characteristics in lacertid lizards. Existing studies have mainly dealt with within- and among-species differences in thermoregulatory behaviour (selected temperatures) and thermal physiology of adults (optimal temperatures, heating rates). Available data provide only limited evidence for clear-cut evolutionary shifts in thermal physiology characteristics along climatic gradients.

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The Horvath’s rock lizard, Iberolacerta horvathi, is occurring from 200 to 2000 m a.s.l. on the eastern Alps (NE Italy, S Austria, NW Slovenia) and the northern Dinaric Mountains (central and S Slovenia and NW Croatia). This species is the only representative of Iberolacerta outside Iberian Peninsula and currently shows a discontinuous occupational range. We collected tissue samples and extracted total genomic DNA of 110 samples from 23 localities across its entire distributional range. We grouped localities into three main geographical areas: northwestern (NW), central and southeastern (SE). For all samples we amplified a fragment of the mtDNA cytochrome b (Cytb) gene whereas a fragment of the nuclear melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) gene was amplified for a subset of 53 samples. Despite the relatively narrow geographical scale, the Cytb haplotype network indicated a high number of unique haplotypes present in each area (6 in the NW and 14 in the central and SE). In NW and in central area we detected two shared haplotypes: a) the widely distributed H5, and b) the H21, shared by only two populations. On the contrary, SE populations did not share any Cytb haplotype with other areas. The nuclear haplotype network analysis gave similar results, where multiple private alleles occurred in each area (4 in NW and central, and 3 in SE) and a widespread haplotype shared across the three areas. Results suggest that current distributional fragmentation is partially mirrored by the phylogeographic history of the species, with private alleles occurring in each of the main geographic areas, indicating limited gene flow among populations at least in the recent past. Knowledge of genetic structure of this endemic species provides essential information to orient activities to ensure its future conservation.

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The Horvath’s rock lizard Iberolacerta horvathi (Méhely, 1904) is an understudied lacertid species, which is geographically isolated from its congeners and currently classified as Near Threatened under IUCN red listing criteria. Due to its limited distribution and narrow environmental preferences, we expect that the species had been affected by past climatic oscillations. By combining all available data on species occurrences and our own records, we produced an updated distribution map. We used ecological niche models to identify the current environmental factors underlying the species range and developed a habitat suitability map. We sequenced one mitochondrial and one nuclear marker to characterize the distribution of the genetic variability and infer the historical demography of the species. The habitat suitability map identified areas where targeted field searches should be prioritized, as well as unsuitable habitats coinciding with likely barriers to gene flow. We found considerable genetic variability suggesting that the species probably survived the Pleistocene glaciations in at least two main refugia, one in the South and the other in the central/northern portion of its distribution. While southern populations show a moderate demographic decrease starting at the onset of the Eemian interglacial, the northern populations underwent an expansion during Late Pleistocene. We provide a revised species distribution and a first characterization of its genetic variability across its distribution to guide conservation priorities for this endemic and spatially restricted species.

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One of Darwin`s most widely known conjectures is that prey are tame on remote islands, where mammalian predators are absent. Many species appear to permit close approach on such islands, but no comparative studies have demonstrated reduced wariness quantified as flight initiation distance (FID; i.e. predator–prey distance when the prey begins to flee) in comparison with mainland relatives. We used the phylogenetic comparative method to assess influence of distance from the mainland and island area on FID of 66 lizard species. Because body size and predator approach speed affect predation risk, we included these as independent variables. Multiple regression showed that FID decreases as distance from mainland increases and is shorter in island than mainland populations. Although FID increased as area increased in some models, collinearity made it difficult to separate effects of area from distance and island occupancy. FID increases as SVL increases and approach speed increases; these effects are statistically independent of effects of distance to mainland and island occupancy. Ordinary least-squares models fit the data better than phylogenetic regressions, indicating little or no phylogenetic signal in residual FID after accounting for the independent variables. Our results demonstrate that island tameness is a real phenomenon in lizards.

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Our thesis aimedto recognize which intraerythrocytic blood parasites infect two species of Slovene lacertids, common wall lizard (Podarcis muralis),and Horvath`s rock lizard (Iberolacerta horvathi). We confirmed the identity of the parasites using molecular approaches by sequencing a part of the 18S rRNA gene. All observedparasiteindividuals belong to the genus Karyolysus, knownby parasitizing reptiles and lacertids specifically.Karyolysus is a genus of protozoan hamogreagrines.Further work included the analysis of prevalence and intensity of parasitic infection in both species of lizards. We compared prevalence and intensity between species, sexes, size, locations, altitudes,and whether the populations live in syntopy or alotopy. We confirmed that the prevalence and intensity of blood parasites were significantly higher in Horvath`s rock lizards. We also observed a higher prevalence of parasites in larger individuals, but this was found in only two locations. Contrary to expectations, we found in two localities that the intensity of parasites was lower in larger animals. The intensity was also higher in males. We did not confirm any differences in prevalence or intensity between syntopic and alotopic populations. We also did notobserve any differences related to altitude. Our results confirm an asymmetricparasitic prevalence and intensitybetween the two competing lizard species that may have a potential influence on theircompetitive relationshipand coexistence

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In parasite–host interactions host species may differ in their ability to fight parasitic infections, while other ecological interactions, including competition, may differentially alter their physiological state, making them even more susceptible to parasites. In this study, we analyse the haemogregarine blood parasites infecting two competing lizard species, Iberolacerta horvathi and Podarcis muralis, and explore host–parasite relationships under different host competition scenarios. Both species were infected with haemogregarine parasites belonging to the genus Karyolysus. Using the 18S rRNA gene, six new Karyolysus haplotypes were identified clustering with other Central and Eastern European samples, and widely shared between both lizard hosts. Haemogregarine infections were detected at all sampled sites with over 50% of individuals parasitized. Overall, I. horvathi was more frequently and also more intensely parasitized than P. muralis, with higher infection rates observed in syntopy. Males of both species tended to be more frequently infected and showed a higher infection intensity than conspecific females. The results suggest that parasitisation by haemogregarines may be relevant in the dynamics of the competitive relationship between these lizard species. More studies, including immunological response analysis, and the identification of the vectors are needed to better understand host–parasite relationships and competition.

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In parasite–host interactions host species may differ in their ability to fight parasitic infections, while other ecological interactions, including competition, may differentially alter their physiological state, making them even more susceptible to parasites. In this study, we analyse the haemogregarine blood parasites infecting two competing lizard species, Iberolacerta horvathi and Podarcis muralis, and explore host–parasite relationships under different host competition scenarios. Both species were infected with haemogregarine parasites belonging to the genus Karyolysus. Using the 18S rRNA gene, six new Karyolysus haplotypes were identified clustering with other Central and Eastern European samples, and widely shared between both lizard hosts. Haemogregarine infections were detected at all sampled sites with over 50% of individuals parasitized. Overall, I. horvathi was more frequently and also more intensely parasitized than P. muralis, with higher infection rates observed in syntopy. Males of both species tended to be more frequently infected and showed a higher infection intensity than conspecific females. The results suggest that parasitisation by haemogregarines may be relevant in the dynamics of the competitive relationship between these lizard species. More studies, including immunological response analysis, and the identification of the vectors are needed to better understand host–parasite relationships and competition.

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Parasites are important drivers shaping animal populations by affecting growth, performance, reproductive successand survival. In sympatric related host species, parasites may shape their interspecific interaction and vice-versa - the intensity of parasite infection and parasitemia couldbe influenced by beforementioned interactions. Members of the genus Hepatozoon (Apicomplexa, Adeleorina) are the most common and widely distributed intracellular parasites oflizards. In this work we studied the parasitization patterns of tw lizard species, Iberolacerta horvathi and Podarcis muralis, ranging Slovenia either in sympatry or in allopatry. We used the 18S rRNA gene to confirm parasite identity an identify potential new haplotype an estimated prevalenc and intensity using microscopy. Then, we tested for the effect of host species, geographic region, body size sex and sympatry/allopatry on these parameters. Preliminary results show significant differences in parasite prevalence and intensity among localities, as well as differences in parasite intensity both among localities and host species. This one of the first studies examining the blood parasites in Slovene reptiles combining microscop and molecular methods, and as such expands our knowledge on parasite diversity, their possible impact in this region and the interaction patterns betwee both lizard species. In addition, the study recovers the variation between sympatry and allopatry as a way of understanding coexistence of two lizard species occupying a similar ecological niche.

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Das Ziel dieser Studie ist, neue Erkenntnisse über die bevorzugten ökologische Nischen und die aktuelle Verbreitung der Kroatischen Gebirgseidechse Iberolacerta horvathi (MÉHELY, 1904) innerhalb Österreichs zu gewinnen. Eine aussagekräftige Vorhersage werden wir mittels Modellierung der potentiellen Verbreitung (SDM – Species‘ distribution modeling) für Österreich treffen und darstellen können. Für die korrelative Modellierung implementieren und analysieren wir artspezifische Habitat-Präferenzen unter Berücksichtigung geologischer, topografischer, bioklimatischer und ökologischer Variablen, basierend auf Daten bisher bekannter Fundorte. Eine anschließende Freilandstudie an die vom Modell berechneten Standorte mit hoher Wahrscheinlichkeit weiterer Vorkommen, soll schlussendlich zur Entdeckung noch unbekannter besetzter Nischen von I. horvathi in Österreich führen. Endresultat der Studie wird eine umfassende Art-Charakterisierung und eine Verbreitungskarte der potentiellen, als auch realisierten Habitate, entlang der nördlichen Verbreitungsgrenze der Kroatischen Gebirgseidechse in Österreich sein. Außerdem testen wir die Aussagekraft der Modellierung, die zukünftig auch als hilfreiche, flexible Methode in Bezug auf Artenschutz Anwendung finden könnte.

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Climatic conditions changing over time and space shape the evolution of organisms at multiple levels, including temperate lizards in the family Lacertidae. Here we reconstruct a dated phylogenetic tree of 262 lacertid species based on a supermatrix relying on novel phylogenomic datasets and fossil calibrations. Diversification of lacertids was accompanied by an increasing disparity among occupied bioclimatic niches, especially in the last 10 Ma, during a period of progressive global cooling. Temperate species also underwent a genome- wide slowdown in molecular substitution rates compared to tropical and desert-adapted lacertids. Evaporative water loss and preferred temperature are correlated with bioclimatic parameters, indicating physiological adaptations to climate. Tropical, but also some popu- lations of cool-adapted species experience maximum temperatures close to their preferred temperatures. We hypothesize these species-specific physiological preferences may con- stitute a handicap to prevail under rapid global warming, and contribute to explaining local lizard extinctions in cool and humid climates.

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The attempt is made to define the distributional patterns of the reptiles in Carinthia (Austria) by selected parameters of climat and vegetation.

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DNA sequences from parts of the 12S, 16S and cytochrome b mitochondrial genes, which totalled 1049 aligned base pairs, were used to estimate the relationships of 49 species of Lacertidae, including representatives of 19 out of the 23 recognized genera and 23 species of the paraphyletic genus Lacerta. These data were used, together with morphological information, to estimate the relationships within the family. Molecular evidence corroborates the monophyletic status of many genera and species groups originally based on morphology. It indicates that Psammodromus forms a clade with Gallotia, which is the sister taxon of all other lacertids. These comprise three units: the primarily Afrotropical armatured group; the largely Oriental Takydromus; and the west Palaearctic Lacerta and its derivatives, Podarcis and Algyroides. Morphology also supports the first three assemblages, but suggests that they are derived from a paraphyletic Lacerta. Within Lacerta and its allies, DNA sequence analysis corroborates the affinity of some members of each of the subgenera Lacerta s. str. and Timon, and of the L. saxicola group. It also supports the relationship of L. monticola, L. bonnali and L. horvathi, and suggests that the L. parva–L. fraasi clade and L. brandti are not related to Psammodromus–Gallotia, as morphology indicates, but instead are associated respectively with the L. danfordi and L. saxicola groups. DNA sequence data provide additional evidence that the eastern Arabian `Lacerta` jayakari and `L.` cyanura are members of the armatured clade and also sister species. Our analysis supports an origin for present lacertids in west Eurasia. The armatured clade invaded Africa, probably in the mid-Miocene, spreading widely and evolving increasingly xeric-adapted forms, one lineage of which later moved back into the Palaearctic. `Lacerta` jayakari and `L.` cyanura are assigned to Omanosaura, Lutz and Mayer 1986. The name Gallotiinae Cano, Baez, Lopez-Jurado and Ortega, 1984 is available for the Gallotia–Psammodromus clade, Eremiainae Shcherbak 1975 for the armatured clade and Lacertinae for Lacerta, Podarcis and Algyroides. Two new subgenera of Lacerta are proposed here: Caucasilacerta for L. saxicola and its allies, and Parvilacerta for L. parva and L. fraasi.

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The evolutionary diversification of many terrestrial vertebrate groups is strongly linked to climatic events in the Cenozoic, the period from 65 Million years ago to today when modern animals first appeared. I investigated the effects of Cenozoic climate change on the taxonomic and morphological diversification of the Old World lizard family Lacertidae, with particular emphasis on the African radiation. African lacertids exhibit an unusual pattern of diversification, in which their highest species richness occurs in deserts north and south of the equator, despite being spread throughout the continent. This disparity is particularly surprising given that desert lacertids are thought to be evolutionarily younger than their mesic-dwelling relatives, suggesting increased diversification rates in arid habitats. To identify the evolutionary factors underlying this pattern, I use a combination of phylogenetic, morphological and ecological techniques. In Chapter 1, I apply Bayesian methods and fossil-based calibrations to molecular sequence data to construct a time-calibrated phylogeny for Lacertidae. I estimate that the family arose in the early Cenozoic, with the majority of their African radiation occurring in the Eocene and Oligocene. In Chapter 2, I describe changes in lacertid body shape across biomes and substrates, and find widespread morphological convergence in similar habitat types. I suggest that in addition to foraging demands, fluctuating and extreme climatic conditions, largely driven by precipitation and temperature, contribute to morphological convergence across independent arid-dwelling clades. Finally, I test if ancestral transitions in ecology, morphology, and rates of diversification temporally coincide with paleoclimatic events in the Cenozoic. I use High Resolution X-ray Computed Tomography to characterize changes in the skull related to life in arid habitats, and apply maximum likelihood methods to test if the origins of those traits temporally coincide with significant shifts in habitat, diversification rates and climatic changes. My results show that African lacertids experienced three major peaks in diversification, accompanied by the evolution of suites of arid-adapted morphological traits. These changes coincide with climatic shifts in Africa, including the transition from closed forests to open grasslands and savanna in the late Oligocene, prior to the peak temperatures of the mid-Miocene Climatic Optimum, and following the formation of the Benguela current leading to hyper-aridity in southern Africa. I conclude that deserts are important centers for reptile evolution, but that expected changes in climate due to global warming may outpace the ability of arid-dwelling species to adapt and persist in the future.

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An updated checklist is presented for the amphibian and reptile fauna of Croatia. According to historical and recent literature sources, 20 amphibian and 41 reptile species have been recorded so far. Two reptile species, Blanus strauchi and Typhlops vermicularis, are considered doubtful, although there are individual museum vouchers for the country. Presence of a total of 59 species can be considered valid, with two additional considered doubtful. This paper summarizes data from 700 scientific and popular publications, which is the first attempt to publish a complete Croatian herpetological bibliography. Full bibliography is also given for all occurring species and constitutes a basis for future publications.

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After a short synthesis of the present knowledge on the distribution of the Horvath’s rock lizard (Iberolacerta horvathi) in Italy, the Author refers about the discovery of a second population of the species on the Dolomites (Italia north-eastern Italy, Veneto Region). It dwells on the climbing wall of mount Tudaio (960 m a. s. l., Vigo di Cadore, Belluno) and has been detected thanks to the recovery of one Horvath’s rock lizard predated by a smooth snake female (Coronella austriaca) falling down from about 15 meters high. From its throat has been extracted a male of Iberolacerta horvathi determined by means of already known diagnostic characters: wide contact between rostral and frontonasal scales, flat and polygonal dorsal scales, caudal rings of regularly alternated thickness (one about a half of the other), bright white unspotted throat, bright yellow-lemon bellies. Status and consistency of the new population of Horvath’s rock lizard is not well known, but it is possible to note that at the bottom of the climbing wall the common wall lizard (Podarcis muralis) seems to be quite frequent.

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After a short synthesis of the present knowledge on the distribution of the Horvath’s rock lizard (Iberolacerta horvathi) in Italy, the Author refers about recent news and field verifications on the distribution of the lizard in Veneto and Friuli Venetia Giulia Regions (north-eastern Italy).

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After a provisional review of the knowledge on Lacerto horvathi in Italy, the authors present new data on its distribution, spacing strategy and territoriality. The species is quite common in various mountainous habitats of north-eastern Italy, both in Friuli- Venezia Giulia (Udine Province, more than 55 localities; Pordenone Province, 1 locality) and Veneto (Belluno Province, 1 locality). In these areas, it lives from 250 (Pradolino Gorge, Pulfero, Udine) to 2000 metres a.s.l.. (M.te Ponza, Tarvisio, Udine). The preliminary comparison between the homing patterns of syntopic L. horvathi and Podarcis muralis suggests that this last-mentioned species is characterised by wider home ranges — 3-9 times bigger than those of L. horvathi — showing a very high inter-specific aggressiveness. However, in deeper gorges, in cool valleys with Dinaric orientation, as well as on top of mountains, L. horvathi tends to vicariate P. muralis for various differences in both spacing, thermal, and reproductive strategies. In north-eastern Italy, such vicariance on average gradually occurs between 700 and 900 meters above sea level.

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The Authors outline the present situation and distribution maps of 118 animal species of European Community interest protected by the EU 92/43/EEC Directive in Friuli Venezia Giulia Region (North-eastern Italy). They belong to various phyla and classes (Mollusca [6 species], Annelida [1 species], Arthropoda [27 species], Vertebrata [84 species]), at various degrees of protection included in the lists of the so-called Habitat Directive (All. II, IV, V). In the present situation the main conservation problems concern various hygrophilous lowland-dwelling species, highly menaced from agriculture, pollution and habitat fragmentation. A lot of meadow-dwelling species, on the contrary, are menaced by forest expansion in various karstic and mountain environment. The great expansion of the mountain woods on the alpine mountain chain, on the other hand, has surely favoured various forest species, like a lot of big and medium Carnivores.

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Over the four year period (2007–2010), the authors conducted a field study aimed at drawing up an inventory of batrachofauna and herpetofauna of the Zrmanja river catchment area. Eight species of amphibians and twenty one species of reptiles were detected; through the available literature overview two more reptilian and one amphibian species were added to the list. Therefore, we proved the presence of thirty two species in total. High diversity of amphibians and reptiles indicates great significance of this area and imposes the need to ensure survival of these species through long-term populations monitoring and conservation measures.

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In this paper, we present data on the female reproductive traits of the Horvath’s rock lizard from Slovenia. The clutch, egg and hatchling characteristics were investigated based on clutches laid in laboratory conditions by pregnant females collected from a natural population. A female lays one clutch of eggs annually with an average number of three (range 1-5) eggs. We found a significant positive correlation between female size and egg width and volume. The mean egg length and volume in a clutch decreased significantly with clutch size independently of female size. The incubation period averaged 44 days. Significant positive correlations were found between the hatchling total length and mass, and egg mass. There was a significant negative relationship between the egg mass and incubation duration. The life-history strategy of the Horvath’s rock lizard appeared to be shaped by several factors, such as the constraints of a high-altitude environment, flattened body morphology and possibly phylogenetic background.

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External morphology of Horvath`s rock lizard (Lacerta liorvathi MEHELY 1904) was examined. Variability was established in the biornetric, meristic and qualitative characters, as well as differences between the adult and juvenile an males and females and between the samples of animals from the Slovenian and north Dinarie part of the area, New localities were stated and the known area of this species expanded.

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Lacerta horvathi is a relatively poorly known species assigned to a taxonomi- cally problematic group of lacertid lizards - Archaeolacerta. It is present with scattered mountain populations in the Julian Alps of Slovenia, in the Ucka Moun- tain and the northern Dinarid Mountains of Croatia, in northeastern Italy, in southwestern Austria, and in southern Germany (LAPINJ & DOLCE 1983, GRIL- LITSCH & TEDEMANN 1986, DE LUCA 1989, CAPULA & LUISELLI 1990). Much of data on distribution and taxonomy of this species were presented during the past few years (e.g. the papers cited above, DE LUCA & DULIC 1988, CAPULA et al. 1989). However, the comprehensive data regarding biology and ecology of L. horvathi are still missing. In this paper some new data on daily and seasonal activity patterns, thermoregulation, reproduction and food composition, are presented.

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Karyotype analysis of 2 male horvath`s rock lizard, Lacerta (Archaeolacerta) horvathi, found 2n = 36 in both somatic and spermatogonial metaphases. All the chromosomes are acrocentric. In diakinesis, 18 bivalents are visible. Microchromosomes, characteristic of most lacertid karyotypes, are absent in this species. In a single metaphase, satellites were observed on the 8th pair of chromosomes. Male sex chromosomes have not been determined. Overall, the karyotype of Lacerta horvathi is similar to that of Lacerta vivipara.

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Albumins from several species assigned to Lacerta s. 1. and Gallotia were investigated by means of the Micro-Complement fixation technique. The phylogenetic trees evaluated according to Fitch & Margoliash (1967) and Beverley & Wilson (1982) led us to infer a division, which is in accordance with protein electrophoretic results (Mayer & Tiedemann, 1982) as well as with the subgeneric division used before the studies of Böhme (1971) and Arnold (1973).

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The Horvath’s rock lizard (Iberolacerta horvathi) is a rupicolous mountain species endemic of the eastern Alps and northern Dinaric range. The species has its known western limit of the distribution in the Veneto region of Italy. It is not known whether the species is really rare in Veneto or whether the area has been insufficiently surveyed. In addition, it is not known whether the westward distribution of the species is limited by a physiographic or by a climatic barrier. During the period 2016-2018, 118 sites were surveyed in the Veneto and Trentino-Alto Adige regions. Four new occurrences of Iberolacerta horvathi were discovered in Veneto that: 1) largely fill the gap between the westernmost known site and the closest site to the east; 2) extend further west the known distribution by 9 km. In addition the species was confirmed in three already known sites. A species distribution model was developed with the software MaxEnt, using 100 occurrences from Italy, Austria and Slovenia. The best model shows that the distribution is explained by the asperity of their habitat, the sedimentary bedrock, the aspect, the average temperature of the coldest quarter, the rainfall seasonality and the average summer rainfall. The last variable appears as the most likely responsible for the rarefaction of the species at its western limit. In addition, the species distribution model suggest that the Horvath’s rock lizard might be present in some additional mountain groups where it has so far not been found yet

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Parts of the mitochondrial genes coding for 12SrRNA and 16SrRNA (together about 960 bp) were sequenced for all Mediterranean species of `Mountain lizards` of the genera Archaeolacerta (sensu lato) and Iberolacerta. All subspecies of the Iberian species Iberolacerta cyreni and I. monticola were included in this study. In addition, samples of Apathya cappadocica and Darevskia rudis were analysed to elucidate the relationships of the European `Mountain lizards` to their possible relatives in the Near East. Maximum parsimony and neighbour joining analyses lead to the following major conclusions: (i) the monophyly of the genus Iberolacerta is very well supported; (ii) Archaeolacerta bedriagae (the type species of the genus) is most basal with respect to the ingroup taxa. If we accept Iberolacerta as a genus, Archaeolacerta becames paraphyletic. Therefore, we propose to restrict Archaeolacerta to the type species and to treat A. mosorensis and A. oxycephala provisionally as members of the collective genus Lacerta; (iii) within the genus Iberolacerta three groups were found: a Pyrenean group, an Iberian group and I. horvathi. The relationships among these groups remain unresolved; and (iv) the Peña de Francia lizards, described originally as a subspecies of I. cyreni, are in fact more closely related to I. monticola.

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The family Lacertidae encompasses more than 250 species distributed in the Palearctis, Ethiopis and Orientalis. Lacertids have been subjected in the past to several morphological and molecular studies to establish their phylogeny. However, the problems of convergent adaptation in morphology and of excessively variable molecular markers have hampered the establishment of well supported deeper phylogenetic relationships. Particularly the adaptations to xeric environments have often been used to establish a scenario for the origin and radiation of major lineages within lacertids. Here we present a molecular phylogenetic study based on two nuclear marker genes and representatives of 37 lacertid genera and distinct species groups (as in the case of the collective genus Lacerta). Roughly 1600 bp of the nuclear rag1 and c-mos genes were sequenced and analyzed. While the results provide good support to the hitherto suggested main subfamilies of Gallotiinae (Gallotia and Psammodromus), Eremiainae and Lacertinae [Harris, D.J., Arnold, E.N., Thomas, R.H., 1998. Relationships of lacertid lizards (Reptilia: Lacertidae) estimated from mitochondrial DNA sequences and morphology. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 265, 1939–1948], they also suggest unexpected relationships. In particular, the oriental genus Takydromus, previously considered the sister-group to the three subfamilies, is nested within Lacertinae. Moreover, the genera within the Eremiainae are further divided into two groups, roughly corresponding to their respective geographical distributions in the Ethiopian and the Saharo-Eurasian ranges. The results support an independent origin of adaptations to xeric conditions in different subfamilies. The relationships within the subfamily Lacertinae could not be resolved with the markers used. The species groups of the collective genus Lacerta show a bush-like topology in the inferred Bayesian tree, suggesting rapid radiation. The composition of the subfamilies Eremiainae and Lacertinae as well as their phylogeography are discussed.

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The collection of Amphibians and Reptiles of the Museum of Natural History of Ferrara has characteristics of historical representation, taxonomic and zoogeography that may be considered as examples of medium-sized types of collections more preva- lent in Italian museums. It consists of a historic part of the study and a donation from Guido Campadelli. The collection consists of 1739 specimens of amphibians (1734 of which held in 437 containers with ethanol and 5 taxidermized specimens) for a total of 78 amphibian species. There are 811 specimens of Reptiles (769 of which are stored in 526 containers with ethanol and 42 taxidermized specimens) representing a total of 108 species. The findings that form the collection of Amphibians come from 153 loca- lities of 15 states and 12 regions and 29 provinces of Italy. In the batrachological col- lection 62.1% of the total European species, and 94.3% of the total species in Italy, are represented. Zoogeographic regions most represented are the Palaearctic with 67% of the species of Amphibians in the collection and the Neotropical with 29%, fol- lowed by the Ethiopian (6%) and Nearctic (5%). Reptiles specimens come from 247 lo- calities of 15 states and 15 regions and 36 provinces of Italy. In the collection 46,2% of European species and 91,5% of the Italian ones are represented. The most represen- ted zoogeographic region are the Palaearctic with 89% of species in the collection, followed by the Ethiopian (14%), the Eastern (13%), Neotropical (11%) and the Nearctic (7%); australian and malagasy species do not exceed 3%. The herpetology collection was the subject of taxonomic and biogeographic analysis.

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Aim Body size is instrumental in influencing animal physiology, morphology, ecology and evolution, as well as extinction risk. I examine several hypotheses regarding the influence of body size on lizard evolution and extinction risk, assessing whether body size influences, or is influenced by, species richness, herbivory, island dwelling and extinction risk. Location World-wide. Methods I used literature data and measurements of museum and live specimens to estimate lizard body size distributions. Results I obtained body size data for 99% of the world`s lizard species. The body size–frequency distribution is highly modal and right skewed and similar distributions characterize most lizard families and lizard assemblages across biogeographical realms. There is a strong negative correlation between mean body size within families and species richness. Herbivorous lizards are larger than omnivorous and carnivorous ones, and aquatic lizards are larger than non-aquatic species. Diurnal activity is associated with small body size. Insular lizards tend towards both extremes of the size spectrum. Extinction risk increases with body size of species for which risk has been assessed. Main conclusions Small size seems to promote fast diversification of disparate body plans. The absence of mammalian predators allows insular lizards to attain larger body sizes by means of release from predation and allows them to evolve into the top predator niche. Island living also promotes a high frequency of herbivory, which is also associated with large size. Aquatic and nocturnal lizards probably evolve large size because of thermal constraints. The association between large size and high extinction risk, however, probably reflects a bias in the species in which risk has been studied.

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Aim Temperature influences most components of animal ecology and life history – but what kind of temperature? Physiologists usually examine the influence of body temperatures, while biogeographers and macroecologists tend to focus on environmental temperatures. We aim to examine the relationship between these two measures, to determine the factors that affect lizard body temperatures and to test the effect of both temperature measures on lizard life history. Location World-wide. Methods We used a large (861 species) global dataset of lizard body temperatures, and the mean annual temperatures across their geographic ranges to examine the relationships between body and mean annual temperatures.We then examined factors influencing body temperatures, and tested for the influence of both on ecological and life-history traits while accounting for the influence of shared ancestry. Results Body temperatures and mean annual temperatures are uncorrelated. However, accounting for activity time (nocturnal species have low body temperatures), use of space (fossorial and semi-aquatic species are ‘colder’), insularity (mainland species are ‘hotter’) and phylogeny, the two temperatures are positively correlated. High body temperatures are only associated with larger hatchlings and increased rates of biomass production. Annual temperatures are positively correlated with clutch frequency and annual longevity, and negatively correlated with clutch size, age at first reproduction and longevity. Main conclusions Lizards with low body temperatures do not seem to have ‘slower’ life-history attributes than species with high body temperatures. The longer seasons prevalent in warm regions, and physiological processes that operate while lizards are inactive (but warm enough), make environmental temperatures better predictors of lizard life-history variation than body temperatures. This surprisingly greater effect of environmental temperatures on lizard life histories hints that global warming may have a profound influence on lizard ecology and evolution.

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Planning conservation actions requires detailed information on species’ geographic distribution. Species distribution data are most needed in areas hosting unique or endangered biodiversity. Italy is one of the European countries with the highest levels of herpetological diversity and endemism and is home to several threatened species of amphibians and reptiles. Information on the distribution of species’ habitats can help identify sites where the species is most likely to thrive, as viable populations depend on it. Area of Habitat (AOH) maps reveal the distribution of the habitat available to the species within their geographic range. We produced high resolution, freely accessible global area of habitat maps for 60 species of reptiles and amphibians distributed in Italy, which represent 60% of all Italian amphibian and reptile species. We validated a total of 44 AOH maps through a presence-only based evaluation method, with 86% of these maps showing a performance better than expected by chance. AOH maps can be used as a reference for conservation planning, as well as to investigate macroecological patterns of Italian herpetofauna. Furthermore, AOH maps can help monitoring habitat loss, which is known to be a major threat to many reptile and amphibian species in Europe.

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The lizards Podarcis muralis and Iberolacerta horvathi display an overall similarity in morphology and ecology. Although they are widely sympatric in part of their distribution range of Slovenia, areas of altitudinal segregation have been observed. Ecophysiological traits such as preferred body temperatures (Tp) and rates of evaporative water loss (EWL) are some of the factors likely to be subjacent to this pattern. We expect the species that is more abundant in higher altitudes to have lower Tp and higher EWL (due to lower environmental temperatures at higher elevations) than the species that is more abundant in lowlands. We conducted lab experiments to determine whether intra- and interspecific variation in these two physiological traits exists. Contrary to expectations, the means of Tp were similar between the species, but their seasonal dynamics differed, which indicates that thermal accuracy might be more important. Species differed in seasonal (and daily) variation of Tp, rising from spring to summer more in P. muralis than in I. horvathi. Comparing instantaneous EWL, our results showed interspecific differences with higher values in P. muralis than in I. horvathi. Throughout a 12-h period, the accumulative EWL was also always higher for P. muralis than for I. horvathi, with the greatest differences occurring after 9–12 h of the experiment. Further studies should focus on investigating if these divergent physiological characteristics of both species are associated with their habitat use (in terms of thermal and water environment) and species interaction.

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Distribution of the genera Podarcis and lberolacerta in Europe have been hypothesized to derive from current and past interactions. Among the putative factors involved, thermal ecology is expected to play a determinant role. As a first step in this research, here we perform a comparative analysis of the preferred temperatures (Tp) by representatives of both genera living in sympatry. Because Tp carries substantial phylogenetic inertia, we expect derive predictions for other similar species tandems. Podarcis muralis and lberolacetfa horvathi display overall similarity in morfometry, coloration and ecology. While P. muralis is a widespread species in Europe occupying a variety of microhabitats, including urban areas, I. horvathi is endemic to Southern Alps and Dinaric Mountains living in rocky habitats but never near human settlements. Sympatry of both species has been recorded in Italy, Austria and, recently, Slovenia. Slovenian I. horvathi is more found at higher altitudes whereas I? muralis shows the opposite trend suggesting higher Tp; To test our hypothesis we have preformed experiments in laboratory thermo gradients (20 -50°C; measurements at 11 hourly intervals) with specimen form a sympatric area from the KoEevska region (SE Slovenia). Preliminary results with males indicate that, contrary to the expectations, Tp were slightly higher in I. horvathi than in P. muralis. However, such differences were only significant in the central hours of the day, hence, P. muralis being more variable daily. This pattern, suggesting more importance of thermal tolerance than thermoregulatory set point, is to be tested by further field studies.

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Lacertinae is one of the three lacertid lizard subfamilies with a geographical distribution confined to the Palaearctic. Several past attempts to reconstruct its phylogeny resulted in unresolved bush-like topologies. We address the question of whether the lack of resolution is due to insufficient data or whether this lack reflects a rapid succession of speciation events. We analyzed four partial and one complete gene sequences from mitochondrial and nuclear genomes, totalling roughly 3600 bp. We included 29 species representing all 19 genera suggested in recent revision of Lacertinae [Arnold, E.N., Arribas, O., Carranza, S., 2007. Systematics of the palaearctic and oriental lizard tribe Lacertini (Squamata: Lacertidae: Lacertinae), with descriptions of eight new genera. Zootaxa 1430, 1–86]. The resulting phylogeny, first, corroborates monophyly at the genus level for the suggested genera, as well as the finding that Atlantolacerta andreanskyi, until recently part of Lacertinae, belongs to the subfamily Eremiadinae. Second, we find that increasing the sequence length and combining multiple nuclear and mitochondrial sequences did not resolve the polytomy, suggesting that the inferred topology indicates a multiple cladogenesis within a short geological period, rather than a methodical artefact. Divergence time estimates, based on previous estimates of several node ages, range from 13.9 to 14.9 million years for the radiation event, however with very broad confidence interval. To associate the radiation with a narrower geological time we consider palaeogeographic and palaeoclimatic data, assuming that the Lacertinae probably evolved in Central Europe andWAsia after the collision of Africa and Eurasia. We suggest that this radiation may date to the late Langhian (ca. 14–13.5 million years) when geological events caused abrupt changes in regional water–land distribution and climate, offering a window of distinct conditions.

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Many animals display complex colour patterns that comprise several adjacent, often contrasting colour patches. Combining patches of complementary colours increases the overall conspicuousness of the complex pattern, enhancing signal detection. Therefore, selection for conspicuousness may act not only on the design of single colour patches, but also on their combination. Contrasting long- and short-wavelength colour patches are located on the ventral and lateral surfaces of many lacertid lizards. As the combination of long- and short-wavelength-based colours generates local chromatic contrast, we hypothesized that selection may favour the co-occurrence of lateral and ventral contrasting patches, resulting in complex colour patterns that maximize the overall conspicuousness of the signal. To test this hypothesis we performed a comparative phylogenetic study using a categorical colour classification based on spectral data and descriptive information on lacertid coloration collected from the literature. Our results demonstrate that conspicuous ventral (long wavelength-based) and lateral (short wavelength-based) colour patches co-occur throughout the lacertid phylogeny more often than expected by chance, especially in the subfamily Lacertini. These results suggest that selection promotes the evolution of the complex pattern rather than the acquisition of a single conspicuous colour patch, possibly due to the increased conspicuousness caused by the combination of colours with contrasting spectral properties.

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Contribution to the knowledge of the distribution of Horvath’s rock lizard Iberolacerta horvathi and Common wall lizard Podarcis muralis in the Friuli Venezia Giulia and in the Veneto regions (North-eastern Italy) – Data collected between 2002 and 2008, during an investigation aimed to fi nd unknown populations of Iberolacerta horvathi and at extending the knowledge about the distribution of Podarcis muralis in Northern Friuli Venezia Giulia and Veneto, are given. Iberolacerta horvathi has been found in 22 new localities, increasing of about 45% of those previously known in Italy, between 520 and 1825 metres a.s.l.. Podarcis muralis has been found in 103 localities, most of them in UTM squares (10X10 Km) not covered by the national atlas. In Friuli Venezia Giulia the species has been found regularly over 900 metres a.s.l. where suitable habitats are present, and locally it reaches 1800 metres a.s.l.. The two species have been found in syntopy in eight localities between 520 and 1800 metres a.s.l.. The Mount Dimon represents the highest locality where in Friuli Venezia Giulia Podarcis muralis has been found and the two lizards in Italy are in syntopy. Finally it has to be pointed out that the works for construction, maintenance and extension of walls, roads etcetera might drastically reduce the suitable habitat of the two species.

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In the last 20 years or so, Horvath’s Rock Lizard Iberolacerta horvathi has been found at over 40 new sites, allowing us to describe a more realistic distribution pattern of the species and to provide novel elements for its understanding. In Italy, the species is distributed only in the north-eastern extremity in 37 UTM squares. Records in the Carnic Prealps and in Veneto have greatly increased. The first quantitative data on the species in Italy, coming from two areas (one in the Carnic Alps, the other in the Julian Alps), show high variability among the months in which it was censused. Although impacts and threats are generally considered to be not very serious, there are factors that can affect (in some cases having done so already) even populations living in apparently safe sites, e.g. interventions in environments deriving from human activity, construction works and meteorological events caused by climate change.

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In 2019 and 2020, monthly censuses were carried out along pre-established transect lines in an area in the Carnic Alps and an area in the Julian Alps. The monthly kilometric abundance index (No. ind./km) varied from 0 to 32 in one area and from 0 to 21 in the other. The abundance values showed high variability among months. This variability and its difference between the two areas were influenced by the climate and its diverse effects due to the site differences. Variation in the phenology of the species was verified, with individuals active throughout the year at high altitudes.

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The observation on 14-9-2019 of an individual of Horvath’s rock lizard Iberolacerta horvathi on a retaining wall of the Raccolana Valley road is the fi rst record of tail bifurcation in the genus Iberolacerta.

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Common Italian names of the amphibians and reptiles present in the geographic Italy are proposed. We analysed a large set of bibliography in order to assess a list of Italian common names used and we proposed the utilization of a single name, also in view of the forthcoming publication of the distribution atlas of the Italian herpetofauna. The criteria used to assign such names follow in general the current use, the possibility to clearly distinguish similar species, geographic and linguistic parameters.

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Satellite DNAs compose a large portion of all higher eukaryotic genomes. The turnover of these highly repetitive sequences is an important element in genome organization and evolution. However, information about the structure and dynamics of reptilian satellite DNA is still scarce. Two satellite DNA families, HindIII and TaqI, have been previously characterized in four species of the genus Iberolacerta. These families showed different chromosomal locations, abundances, and evolutionary rates. Here, we extend the study of both satellite DNAs (satDNAs) to the remaining Iberolacerta species, with the aim to investigate the patterns of variability and factors influencing the evolution of these repetitive sequences. Our results revealed disparate patterns but also common traits in the evolutionary histories of these satellite families: (i) each satellite DNA is made up of a library of monomer variants or subfamilies shared by related species; (ii) species-specific profiles of satellite repeats are shaped by expansions and/or contractions of different variants from the library; (iii) different turnover rates, even among closely related species, result in great differences in overall sequence homogeneity and in concerted or non-concerted evolution patterns, which may not reflect the phylogenetic relationships among taxa. Contrasting turnover rates are possibly related to genomic constraints such as karyotype architecture and the interspersed organization of diverging repeat variants in satellite arrays. Moreover, rapid changes in copy number, especially in the centromeric HindIII satDNA, may have been associated with chromosomal rearrangements and even contributed to speciation within Iberolacerta.

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This paper represents an update of the list of Italian amphibians and reptiles published 15 years ago by Razzetti et al. (2006) and of the checklist published in 1993 by the late Benedetto Lanza. At present, the Italian herpetofauna includes 100 species (41 amphibians and 59 reptiles) and an amphibian taxon of hybrid origin. Seven species and one subspecies are allochthonous and became naturalized within the last century. Since the last published list, a new species has been described (Vipera walser), five taxa have been raised to species rank (Salamandrina perspicillata, Speleomantes sarrabusensis, Zootoca carniolica, Malpolon insignitus and Natrix helvetica) while three taxa have been downgraded to subspecies. All the relevant taxonomic changes based upon new research have been discussed, including tentative revisions and controversial taxa. Nine species reported or listed dubitatively in Lanza’s 1993 list are excluded here.

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Research on the taxonomy of European amphibians and reptiles has increased noticeably over the last few decades, indicating the need for recognition of new species and the cancellation of others. This paper provides a critical review of recent changes and draws up a tentative species list.

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The last species list of the European herpetofauna was published by Speybroeck, Beukema and Crochet (2010). In the meantime, ongoing research led to numerous taxonomic changes, including the discovery of new species-level lineages as well as reclassifications at genus level, requiring significant changes to this list. As of 2019, a new Taxonomic Committee was established as an official entity within the European Herpetological Society, Societas Europaea Herpetologica (SEH). Twelve members from nine European countries reviewed, discussed and voted on recent taxonomic research on a case-by-case basis. Accepted changes led to critical compilation of a new species list, which is hereby presented and discussed. According to our list, 301 species (95 amphibians, 15 chelonians, including six species of sea turtles, and 191 squamates) occur within our expanded geographical definition of Europe. The list includes 14 non-native species (three amphibians, one chelonian, and ten squamates).

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Elements of the herpetofauna are in the author`s opinion of great importance for the zoogeographical division of the Palaearctic region. It is suggested that this region be divided into the following four subregions: 1/ arctic, 2/ boreal Euro-Siberian, 3/ bo- real Himalayan-Manchurian and 4/ Mediterranean-Central-Asiatic.

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The story of discovery of Austrian populations of Horvath`s Rock Lizard (Lacerta horvathi MÉHELY, 1904) is briefly outlined. A chart of all locality records hitherto known in Austria (Cannthia) is provided, including first records from the Karawanken Mts. The fruitless attempts to confirm Bavarian records of this species and to ascertain its presence in the Tyrol are reported.

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We explored the ontogenetic dynamics of the morphological and allometric disparity in the cranium shapes of twelve lacertid lizard species. The analysed species (Darevskia praticola, Dinarolacerta mosorensis, Iberolacerta horvathi, Lacerta agilis, L. trilineata, L. viridis, Podarcis erhardii, P. melisellensis, P. muralis, P. sicula, P. taurica and Zootoca vivipara) can be classified into different ecomorphs: terrestrial lizards that inhabit vegetated habitats (habitats with lush or sparse vegetation), saxicolous and shrub-climbing lizards. We observed that there was an overall increase in the morphological disparity (MD) during the ontogeny of the lacertid lizards. The ventral cranium, which is involved in the mechanics of jaw movement and feeding, showed higher levels of MD, an ontogenetic shift in the morphospace planes and more variable allometric patterns than more conserved dorsal crania. With respect to ecology, the allometric trajectories of the shrub-climbing species tended to cluster together, whereas the allometric trajectories of the saxicolous species were highly dispersed. Our results indicate that the ontogenetic patterns of morphological and allometric disparity in the lacertid lizards are modified by ecology and functional constraints and that the identical mechanisms that lead to intraspecific morphological variation also produce morphological divergence at higher taxonomic levels.

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We used Procrustes-based geometric morphometrics to explore morphological variability in dorsal and ventral cranium shape of twelve lacertid lizard species from the Balkan Peninsula (), at the juvenile (neonatal) and at the adult stage (females and males separately). These species differed in phylogenetic relatedness, overall size and habitat preference (terrestrial in overgrown habitats, terrestrial in sparsely vegetated habitats, saxicolous and semiarboreal). General pattern of shape variation appeared to be preserved throughout ontogeny, especially for the dorsal cranium - adult female and male morphospaces corresponded to the neonate morphospace. The inspection of morphospaces showed that the general pattern of shape variability was along the gradient from the smaller to the species with larger body size. Along this gradient, species clustered according to habitat preference. The main difference between neonates and adults was the position of semiarboreal species, which completely separated from the rest of the species at the adult stage. The overall morphological disparity (MD) increased during the course of ontogeny (from neonates to adult females and males). Ventral cranium, with its structures involved in mechanics of jaw movement and feeding, showed greater increase in MD, as well as the shift in the morphospace hyperplanes. On the generic level, Lacerta spp. showed significantly higher MD than Podarcis spp. In contrast to other ecological groups (terrestrial and semiarboreal) saxicolous lizards showed a tendency of decreasing shape disparity during ontogeny. The species from saxicolous group were phylogenetically heterogeneous but morphologically convergent due to the specific habitat constraints, and their distinctive MD pattern could be achieved by different allometric paths. The patterns of shape variation and MD were modified by ecology, functional constraints and different ontogenetic trajectories. Further studies on the ecomorphology, allometric diversity and morphological integration, as well as the reassessment of the problematic lacertid phylogeny are needed in order to shed more light on the complex relationships among morphology, ecology and phylogeny in lacertid lizards.

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Different factors and processes that produce phenotypic variation at the individual, population, or interspecific level can influence or alter the covariance structure among morphological traits. Therefore, studies of the patterns of integration and modularity at multiple levels—static, ontogenetic, and evolutionary, can provide invaluable data on underlying factors and processes that structured morphological variation, directed, or constrained evolutionary changes. Our dataset, consisting of cranium shape data for 14 lizard species from the family Lacertidae, with substantial samples of hatchlings and adults along with their inferred evolutionary relationships, enabled us to assess modularity and morphological integration at all three levels. Five, not mutually exclusive modularity hypotheses of lizard cranium, were tested, and the effects of allometry on intensity and the pattern of integration and modularity were estimated. We used geometric morphometrics to extract symmetric and asymmetric, as well as allometric and nonallometric, components of shape variation. At the static level, firm confirmation of cranial modularity was found for hypotheses which separate anterior and posterior functional compartments of the skull. At the ontogenetic level, two alternative hypotheses (the “anteroposterior” and “neurodermatocranial” hypotheses) of ventral cranial modularity were confirmed. At the evolutionary level, the “neurodermatocranial” hypothesis was confirmed for the ventral cranium, which is in accordance with the pattern observed at the ontogenetic level. The observed pattern of static modularity could be driven by functional demands and can be regarded as adaptive. Ontogenetic modularity and evolutionary modularity show the same developmental origin, indicating conservatism of modularity patterns driven by developmental constraints.

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The study reports on the distribution and habitat use of two lizard species in the Kočevsko region: Horvath’s rock lizard and common wall lizard. Extensive sampling across an altitudinal span of 200 to 1,100 m a.s.l. in the study area revealed 62 localities with populations of both or either species. At 11 of these localities (18%) species occurred in syntopy, at 42 locations (68%) only common wall lizards were found, while at 9 locations (14%) only Horvath’s rock lizards were recorded. Both species occurred across the entire altitudinal span but exhibited an opposite pattern of relative abundances and frequencies, which increased with increasing altitude in Horvath’s rock lizard and with decreasing altitude in common wall lizard. The habitat use of common wall lizard was more general (it was found in seven habitat types) than Horvath’s rock lizard that was registered only in three habitat types with rocks.

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The understanding of mechanisms of interspecific competition between ecologically similar sympatric species is often lacking from studies predicting the impact of future climate changes. However biotic interactions are known to be key factors influencing the community structure. We studied interspecific competitive mechanisms in two species: the Horvath`s rock lizard (Iberolacerta horvathi [Méhely, 1904]) and the common wall lizard (Podarcis muralis [Laurenti, 1768]). At first we examined the potential for competition between studied species by comparing their realised niches in the sympatric area and their morphological, physiological and ecological traits (species` fundamental ecological niches). Altitude contributed the most to the segregation pattern in their distribution. Both species have similar general habitat use and were morphologically similar, except for the head height, which might have reprecursions in segregation in the use of refuge sites. Species were similar in the mean of preferred body temperatures and metabolic rates, but differed in the precision of thermoregulation and the potential metabolic activity. Thus, I. horvathi might have eco-physiological competitive advantages over P. muralis in thermally restrictive (cold) environments. Furthermore, species were found to compete for limited resource (sun-exposed areas) via direct agonistic interactions, indicating an asymmetric interspecific interaction (P. muralis showed to be in adavnatge over I. horvathi). We have also assesed the role of common predators as mediators on the interaction between lizards as prey species. We suggest that “a more cautious” anti-predator behavioural response of I. horvathi might provide direct benefits (higher survival rates) but only in populations where predation pressure was high, otherwise it carries substantial time and thermoregulatory costs. Overall results of the dissertation improved our understanding of interspecific competition between studied sympatric species. Such information may also be used for improving results of modelling predictions of the effect of future climate changes on the distribution of these protected species.

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Prey response to different predators is complex and can include diverse antipredatory strategies. In syntopic populations of competing species common predators can play a mediator role thus influence the interaction out-come of prey-species in an indirect way. We studied differences in antipredator response in two competing lizards in syntopy in a multipredator environment. Studied prey species, Iberolacerta horvathi and Podarcis muralis, are likely to compete in syntopic populations limited in size and have similar morphology and ecology but exhibit fine-scale ecophysiological differences. Taking into account interspecific differences in ecophysiology we expected that I. horvathi as a more precise thermoregulator would be less prone to use refuges that represent a thermal cost (are colder than outside). The pattern we found was the opposite of our expectations; I. horvathi escaped at greater distances and remained in the refuge for longer before re-emerging than P. muralis. Second part of the study revealed that both species were able to recognize chemical cues of predator snakes (represented as higher tongue flick rates in the presence of scents of predator snakes in comparison to control). Behavioral responses, which are linked with stressful situations connected to saurophagous snakes, were more frequent and variable in I. horvathi. Overall, antipredator responses seem to be more pronounced in /. horvathi than in P. muralis. While this `more cautious` attitude of I. horvathi should provide higher short-term benefits (higher survival rates), this would hold true only in populations where predation pressure is high. Otherwise it carries substantial time and thermoregulatory costs. For I. horvathi, costs of refuge use should be even higher due to narrower dimensions of their ecophysiological fundamental niche. Such divergences in antipredator behavior are expected to shape the relationships between both species in syntopic populations modulated by common predation pressure and habitat structure.

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The article presents results from a reptile survey conducted between 14 and 16 June 2013 in a montane and subalpine belt of the western part of Dinara Mountain in Croatia. The most interesting result is the southernmost finding of Horvath’s Rock lizard (Iberolacerta horvathi). In the survey area we also recorded eight other reptile species: Anguis fragilis, Lacerta agilis, L. viridis sensu lato, Podarcis muralis, P. melissellensis, Coronella austriaca, Zamenis longissimus, and Vipera ammodytes.

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Solar radiation is in theory an unlimited resource on Earth, but can be locally limited. Heliothermic organisms use solar radiation to elevate their body temperatures, leading them to compete for sun-exposed areas, where interference for limited resource can occur. In coexisting lizard species, interference for basking sites could promote and direct interspecific interactions, which can be related to broader geographic species distribution patterns. We compared two competing lizard species (Podarcis muralis and Iberolacerta horvathi) that occupy sun-exposed gaps in a forested landscape in the Northern Dinaric Mountains (southern Europe). Both species exhibit an altitudinal segregation pattern with a high zone of overlap at middle altitudes. Using experimental thermal gradients, we tested for existence of interference competition. We used adult male lizards in three social contexts, alone as a measure of preferred body temperature (T p) and in conspecific or heterospecific pairs as a measure of realized body temperature (T r). I. horvathi achieved lower T r compared to its T p (alone), while T r of P. muralis did not vary between social contexts. The evidence for interference found in I. horvathi could not be explained by a change in their general movement pattern in a thermal gradient. Our results suggest that interference was a result of direct agonistic interactions, assessed by the frequency of approaches and touches. I. horvathi showed higher interference-susceptibility than P. muralis indicating an asymmetric interaction between the two species. Sunlight (as a resource) is an important factor influencing distribution patterns in assemblages of heliothermic ectotherms where sun-exposed basking sites are limited.

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Lacertids are preyed upon by different predators with different foraging strategies, namely, avian predators attack from above, while terrestrial predators use either approaching on open ground or active searching for prey in their hiding places. When active, lacertids are expected to employ different antipredatory behaviours, either crypsis or early predator detection (visually or chemically) followed by escape to the shelter. Syntopic populations of overall similar lacertid species are likely to share predators. However, their predator avoidance tactics might differ. Using standard techniques, we conducted a field test of the escape-recovery tactics for two morphologically and ecologically similar species: Iberolacerta horvathi and Podarcis muralis, occurring in syntopy in the Northern Dinaric region. Adults of both species intrinsically differed in their escape tactics when approached by the researcher simulating a ground predator attack. Specifically, I. horvathi tended to escape at greater distances and spent more time in the shelter before emerging (longer recovery time) regardless the air, surface or refuge temperatures and habitat type. These divergent antipredator strategies involving different predation risks are expected to affect coexistence of these two lizard species.

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Functional performance linked with individual fitness has a major impact on population survival. In sympatric species where the potential for competition is high due to ecological resemblance, variation in performance may play an important role in facilitating species co-existence. Sexual selection also influences morphology. We aimed to examine the potential role of functional morphology and whole-organism performance in species co-existence patterns. We investigated functional traits of two sympatric species, Iberolacerta horvathi and Podarcis muralis. They exhibited a partial segregation pattern, but were found to co-exist in 18% of all populations in the study area. We captured between 24 and 28 females and males of both species to quantify morphological traits and performance (bite-force and speed). Observed variation in functional traits suggests four major mechanisms probably enhancing co-existence: (i) Head shape in connection with bite-force may determine trophic segregation and (ii) may influence success in agonistic social encounters. Males had higher bite forces than females, and P. muralis exerted higher bite forces than I. horvathi of the same sex. Relatively higher but narrower heads were associated with increased biting performance in P. muralis. (iii) Difference in head height may allow spatial segregation in the use of crevices that is potentially linked with different prey, egg-laying sites and predator avoidance. Iberolacerta horvathi had a flatter head than P. muralis. (iv) Size of female trunk-length may promote the relative size of a clutch and positively influence reproductive effort by clutch. Since higher climbing speed was associated to longer limbs and shorter trunks, females (especially I. horvathi) were the slowest climbers. In conclusion, head dimensions and bite force were observed to be ecomorphological traits potentially involved in promoting co-existence between species. We also found a connection between trunk length and climbing performance. However, its implication for species interactions is more difficult to understand, possibly because strong selection pressures for reproduction are involved.

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1. We examined intra- and interspecific variation in functional morphology and whole-organism performance in a sympatric lizard species pair, Iberolacerta horvathi and Podarcis muralis, in the area with a high potential for competition. 2. The biggest variation between species was found in two functional traits, bite force and climbing speed, linked with corresponding morphological traits. 3. The species with larger and taller heads, P. muralis, exhibited correspondingly stronger bite forces. The other species exhibited smaller and flatter head. Both traits may potentially promote segregation between species in trophic niche (stronger bites relate to harder prey) and in refuge use (flatter heads allow using narrower crevices, hence, influencing escaping from common predators). Stronger bites and larger heads also provide one species with a dominant position in interspecific agonistic interactions. 4. Females had longer trunks that impacted negatively on climbing speed, which may lower anti-predator escape abilities of the more trunk-dimorphic species, but positively influence reproductive effort. 5. Our results exemplify how the joint examination of morphological and functional traits of ecologically similar and sympatric species can provide a mechanistic background for understanding their coexistence, namely syntopic populations that are frequent in the study area. 6. The identified roles of functional morphology in this system of sympatric rock lizards support the contribution of functional diversification for the complexity of community structure via coexistence.

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We have surveyed sympatric reptiles in a diverse and preserved montane environment in the Northern Dinaric region (Southern Slovenia) to determine the assemblage structure and assess the patterns of habitat segregation. Altitude and habitat type contributed the most to segregations between the most abundant species. The most similar were species pairs of L. viridis/bilineata and P. muralis, and I. horvathi and V. ammodytes. In snakes, significant segregation patterns have been observed between all species. Among lizards, we have found strong altitudinal segregation between two morphologically and ecologically most similar species; P. muralis was most abundant at low and I. horvathi at higher elevations. This result indicated a potential competitive interaction between these species

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Podarcis muralis and Iberolacerta horvathi are sympatric, frequently syntopic, lacertids through the entire range of I. horvathi and very similar in their general body size and shape, as well as in most ecological traits. We morphologically compared adults from the area of sympatry using biometric measurements and performed analyses to investigate their sexual size and shape dimorphism. A total of 34 males and 24 females of I. horvathi, and 25 males and 23 females of P. muralis, all adult individuals, were measured. Both species showed sexual size dimorphism with females being longer (snout-vent length, SVL) than males. After SVL correction (ANCOVA), head width, length and height and mass showed to be sexually dimorphic in both species. Males carry relatively wider, longer and higher heads and were heavier than conspecific females. I. horvathi heads were more flattened than those of P. muralis and P. muralis were heavier than I. horvathi. Both species displayed the same pattern of sexual dimorphism regarding body size, head size and shape not only in direction but also in magnitude. All results confirm that both species are very similar in studied biometric characters and, together with their ecological similarities, these suggest in absence of other factors they are likely to interact when living together.

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Species interactions are complex processes derived from a combination of organisms’ physiological predispositions and their behavioural and ecological traits combined with their spatial and temporal distribution. Understanding interspeciic interactions between two lacertid species should include a multi-level approach. The focus of individual studies should interfere with each other, but the irst step should be done separately. Podarcis muralis and Iberolacerta horvathi are sympatric in almost whole range of I. horvathi’s distribution (endemic to Southern Alps in NE Italy, S Austria and NW Slovenia and Dinaric Mountains in Slovenia and Croatia) and display overall similarity in morphometric, coloration and ecological characteristics. I. horvathi is more abundant at higher altitudes whereas P. muralis shows the opposite trend, suggesting competitive exclusion pattern. One way to understand biological processes of lacertid species on a mechanistic level is to preform experiments investigating preferred body temperatures (Tp), since the use of best basking sites could be source of competition in ectothermic reptiles. For two consecutive years we performed a comparative analysis of Tp with experiments in laboratory thermo gradients (20 -50°C; measurements at 11 hourly intervals) with specimens of both sympatric species to compare interspeciic variation. I. horvathi selected higher Tps than P. muralis but mainly in spring and in the afternoon, in summer and early morning being more similar. P. muralis had a broader range of Tp than I. horvathi, suggesting it to be more eurythermic. Secondly, we investigated if the presence of conspeciic or heterospeciic male inluences the males’ Tp of both species to ind out if inference interactions inluence Tp. Preliminary results show that the inluence of presence of con- or hetero-speciic males on Tp was only evident in I. horvathi, but not in P. muralis.

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A detailed survey of the publications and main Slovenian collections showed that only limited information on the distribution of Carcharodus lavatherae, Pyrgus carthami, and Pyrgus serratulae is available. Within the framework of the Slovenian butterfly atlas survey, several additional records have been gathered during the past two decades. C. lavatherae was found in four separate areas, but the knowledge about its threat status and habitat preference is still insufficient due to the scarcity of the encounters. The distribution of Pyrgus carthami in Slovenia is much more limited than considered by previous authors. All confirmed records are confined to southwest Slovenia, where the main strongholds are the south facing slopes north of the Vipava valley and western part of the Kras plateau. The large number of unpublished records is somewhat masking the actual decline of the species in Slovenia. P. serratulae is the most enigmatic of the three species with numerous published records but no vouchers that could verify its presence in Slovenia. The discovery of the species in the Poček military area is the first confirmed observation in Slovenia, putting this species right to the top of the conservation priorities in butterflies.

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Horvath`s Rock Lizard is a relict endemic species of Dinaric-East Alpine mountain range. It occurs in western Croatia, western Slovenia, north-eastern Italy, western Austria and southern Germany. It is one of the least known species of lacertids in Slovenia. Previously it had been assumed that its distribution is limited to high mountainous regions of Julian Alps, Trnovski gozd and Mt. Snežnik above 650 m a.s.l. Only in the recent years specimens have been found also outside this range in the Dinaric Mountains. New finds were made in three regions of Slovenia, all located in Dinaric range in southern Slovenia. All individual lacertids were captured or approached to a close distance and determined by the position of supranasal, frontonasal and rostral scales, according to determination keys. In July 2006 a survey on the distribution of reptiles was made in Notranjsko podolje region, where we registered 23 individuals of Horvath’s Rock Lizard at 6 localities. We found them on rocky ground in karstic terrain, on walls of ruins and in a dry riverbed. The altitude of the localities ranged from 458 to 640 m. During a reptile survey in Kočevje region from April to August 2007, new finds of I. horvathi were discovered at 17 localities, where we found 18 individuals. They were located on rocky cliffs in karstic terrain and rocky road banks in a mixed Dinaric forest (Omphalodo-Fagetum). The altitude of the localities ranged from 462 to 1066 m. Since 2006 there have been several observations of Horvath’s Rock lizards also at one locality in Iški Vintgar at 370 m on rocky walls in a gorge. At more than one location we captured both Horvath’s Rock Lizard and Common Wall Lizard (Podarcis muralis) on the same wall or rocky ground. This confirms the fact that both species can occur syntopic at the same localities. Due to similarities in coloration and habitat preferences of I. horvathi and P. muralis, it is usually necessary to catch an individual to determine the species. As it was thought in the past that in Slovenia Horvath’s Rock Lizard is limited to high regions of the Alps and Dinaric Mts., this species was often not considered an option, when determining lizards in the lower regions of Dinaric range. Therefore some of the finds recorded in the past as P. muralis might actually be I. horvathi. We recommend that additional care should be taken, when determining the small lacertids and to inspect the position of snout scales whenever possible. New data presented here suggest that Horvath’s Rock Lizard is much more widespread throughout the Dinaric range in Slovenia than previously believed. Additional surveys are needed to get a better picture on the distribution of this endemic species and to determine its population status in Slovenia.

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Studies which quantify the influence of abiotic factors on physiological variation are paramount to comprehend organismal responses to diverse environments. We studied three physiological aspects of metabolism in two sympatric and ecologically similar European lizard species, Podarcis muralis and Iberolacerta horvathi, across an 830-m elevational gradient. We collected blood samples and tail tips from adult lizards, which were analyzed for parasitemia, hemoglobin concentration, potential metabolic activity and catalase activity. Hemoglobin concentration was higher in males than females and it increased across elevation in one of the studied species – P. muralis. Parasitemia was not an important predictor of the variation in hemoglobin concentration, which suggests that blood parasites do not constraint the aerobic capacity of the lizards. On the other hand, catalase activity reflected increased antioxidant activity in the presence of higher parasitemia, possibly acting as an adaptive mechanism to reduce oxidative stress during immune activation. Potential metabolic activity, as a proxy for maximum respiratory enzymatic capacity, did not differ between species or sexes nor was it affected by elevation or levels of parasitemia. The results provide insight into the relationships between physiological, biotic, and environmental traits in sympatric lizards.

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Sympatric species from the same ecological guild, that exhibit partial altitudinal segregation, can potentially interact in areas of syntopic occurrence. Besides general species` ecology, physiology can provide important answers about species interactions reflected in altitudinal patterns. Lizards Podarcis muralis and Iberolacerta horvathi exhibit partial altitudinal segregation, while they strongly resemble in overall morphology and ecology (diet, daily and seasonal activity pattern), but show certain degree of physiological dissimilarity. They have similar mean preferred body temperatures and patterns of seasonal and daily variations but differ in the magnitude of seasonal variation. Since an ectotherm metabolism is highly dependent on body temperature, thermoregulation is expected to directly affect their metabolism. We compared metabolic rates of adult males from an area of sympatry, measured under two temperature regimes (20 °C and 28 °C). Both species increased metabolic rates with temperature in a similar pattern. We also compared electron transport activity from tail tissues which provide values of species` potential metabolic activity (enzymatic capacity). Species clearly differed in potential metabolic activity; I. horvathi attained higher values than P. muralis. No difference was detected in how species exploited this potential (calculated from the ratio of electron transport activity and metabolic rates). However, we observed higher potential metabolic activity I. horvathi which together with the ability to thermoregulate more precisely could represent a higher competitive advantage over P. muralis in thermally more restrictive environments such as higher altitudes. Understanding of metabolism seems to provide valuable information for understanding recent distributional patterns as well as species interactions.

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In the last few years, DNA barcoding became an established method for species identification in biodiversity inventories and monitoring studies. Such studies depend on the access to a comprehensive reference data base, covering all relevant taxa. Here we present a comprehensive DNA barcode inventory of all amphibian and reptile species native to Austria, except for the putatively extinct Vipera ursinii rakosiensis and Lissotriton helveticus, which has been only recently reported for the very western edge of Austria. A total of 194 DNA barcodes were generated in the framework of the Austrian Barcode of Life (ABOL) initiative. Species identification via DNA barcodes was successful for most species, except for the hybridogenetic species complex of water frogs (Pelophylax spp.) and the crested newts (Triturus spp.), in areas of sympatry. However, DNA barcoding also proved powerful in detecting deep conspecific lineages, e.g. within Natrix natrix or the wall lizard (Podarcis muralis), resulting in more than one Barcode Index Number (BIN) per species. Moreover, DNA barcodes revealed the presence of Natrix helvetica, which has been elevated to species level only recently, and genetic signatures of the Italian water frog Pelophylax bergeri in Western Austria for the first time. Comparison to previously published DNA barcoding data of European amphibians and reptiles corroborated the results of the Austrian data but also revealed certain peculiarities, underlining the particular strengths and in the case of the genus Pelophylax also the limitations of DNA barcoding. Consequently, DNA barcoding is not only powerful for species identification of all life stages of most Austrian amphibian and reptile species, but also for the detection of new species, the monitoring of gene flow or the presence of alien populations and/or species. Thus, DNA barcoding and the data generated in this study may serve both scientific and national or even transnational conservation purposes.

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Während mehrerer Reise über den Predilpass in das Soca-Tal (Slowenien) konnte ich Iberolacerta horvathi und weitere Reptilien in drei Festungsanlagen aus dem Ersten Weltkrieg beobachten. An den markanten Gebäuden bewohnt diese Eidechse senkrechte Mauerflächen und ist eine häufige Erscheinung. Tiere beider Geschlechter und aller Altersstufen nutzen die gleichen Mikrohabitate. Des Weiteren wird auf eine zusätzliche visuelle Möglichkeit der Unterscheidung zur – auf den ersten Blick – ähnlichen und zum Teil syntop vorkommenden Mauereidechse (Podarcis muralis muralis) eingegangen.

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During two trips in 2005 and 2011 a total of four species of true lizards (Lacertidae) were recorded and photographed at the Plitvice Lakes National Park (Croatia). The Viviparous Lizard (Zootoca vivipara vivipara), the Eastern Green Lizard (Lacerta viridis viridis), the Common Wall Lizard (Podarcis muralis muralis) and Horvath’s Rock Lizard (Iberolacerta horvathi) occur in different densities and habitats within the national park.