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The composition of the food of Genetta genetta was studied from 17 groups of droppings with more than 2000 remains of animals and an undeterminated number of plants. On the small island of Cabrera lizards form the main diet. On the other islands mammals (Rodentia) and lizards (Lacertidae, Geckonidae) are the most common prey animals, followed by various insects. Plant material has been found more regularly on Ibiza. Genetta certainly is an euryphagous animal, but this behaviour pattern may alter to a stenophagous phase in certain environments.

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In this paper we present a biogeographical analysis of the herpetological biota of the Balearics and Pityusics. Baleaphyne muletensis, Lacerta (Podarcis) lilfordi and Lacerta (Podarcis) pityusensis are considered as palaeoendemics and, plausibly, they colonized our islands during the Messinian. All the remaining species of the present day herpetological biota must have inmigrated to Balearics and Pityusiccs due to the intervention of man.

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Dietary studies are essential to unravel the functioning of ecosystems and ultimately to understand biodiversity. This task, which at first may seem simple, becomes especially complex in those cases of omnivorous species with highly variable diets. In this regard, the emergence of next-generation DNA sequencing methodologies represents a powerful tool to address the problem. Here we implement a high-throughput metabarcoding strategy based on the analysis of four molecular markers aimed at sequencing both mitochondrial (animal prey) and chloroplast (diet plants) genome fragments from fecal samples of two lizard species endemic to the Balearic Archipelago (Podarcis lilfordi and P. pityusensis) obtained through non-invasive methods. The results allowed for the characterization of their diets with a high degree of taxonomic detail and have contributed a large number of new trophic records. The reported diets are based mainly on the consumption of arthropods, mollusks and plants from a diversity of taxonomic orders, as well as carrion and marine subsidies. Our analyses also reveal inter- and intra-specific differences both in terms of seasonality and geographical distribution of the sampled lizard populations. These molecular findings provide new insights into the trophic interactions of these threatened endemic lizards in their unique and isolated ecosystems.

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Gut microbial communities provide essential functions to their hosts and are known to influence both their ecology and evolution. However, our knowledge of these complex associations is still very limited in reptiles. Here we report the 16S rRNA gene faecal microbiota profiles of two lizard species endemic to the Balearic archipelago (Podarcis lilfordi and P. pityusensis), encompassing their allopatric range of distribution through a noninvasive sampling, as an alternative to previ- ous studies that implied killing specimens of these IUCN endangered and near-threatened species, respectively. Both lizard species showed a faecal microbiome composition consistent with their omnivorous trophic ecology, with a high representa- tion of cellulolytic bacteria taxa. We also identified species-specific core microbiota signatures and retrieved lizard species, islet ascription, and seasonality as the main factors in explaining bacterial community composition. The different Balearic Podarcis populations are characterised by harbouring a high proportion of unique bacterial taxa, thus reinforcing their view as unique and divergent evolutionary entities.

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Vorarbeiten über Schädlingsfauna der Kriehtieren (Reptilien) in der Türkei -- Die Kriehtiere leben meistens auf dem Lande. Viele sind Insektenfresser. Zahlreiche Arten nehmen tierische und pflanzliche, oder ausschliesslich pflanzliche Nahrung zu sich. Ihre wirtschaftliche Schäden an Kulturpflanzen sind gelegentlich. Die besonderen Arten von Pflanzenschädlingen, die in der Türkei leben, sind noch nicht genugend untersucht. Darüber findet man heute sehr wenige und nur zerstreute Veröffentlichungen und Beobachtungen in der Hand. In dieser Vorarbeit sind die bisheute bekannten pflanzenschädliche Arten von Kriehtieren bzw. Eidechsen und Schildkröten, in ihren Verbreitungsgebieten und ihre Nährpflanzen zum erstenmale zusammengestellt. Selbstverstândlioh sind darüber weitere und vertiefte Beobachtungen erforderlich. -- Die Arten der Eidechsen: Agama stellio L. (Schleuderschwanz). Verbreitung: Anatolien, Ankara (Ebner 1919, Kerville 1939). Nährpflanzen: Die süssen Früchten wie Feigen, Pfirsiche, Zuckermelonen, und andere Früohte, Salate, Lattichsalate.,- Agama stellio stellio L. Verbreitung: Süd - und west Türkei, Amasya, Nigde, Diyarbakir, Kayseri, Çanakkale (Bodenheimer 1946 und andere). Nährpflanzen: Wie bei Agama stellio L. -- Agama ruderata Oliv. (Ankara, Kerville 1939), Agama ruderata ruderata Oliv. Ankara, Eregli (Konya), Mardin, Nusaybin, Gaziantep und Malatya (Bodenheimer 1946), Eine Probe in Eregli (Konya) wurde vom Verfasser gefunden. Nährpflanzen: Noch nicht festgestellt, vielleicht wie bei Agama stellio L. -- Lacerta viridis Laur. var. major D. und B. (Srnaragdeidechse). Verbreitung: Westanatolien, andere Fundorte sind nicht bekannt. Nährpflanzen: Weintrauben, Feigen, Kirchen und andere süsse Früchten. Note: Noch mehrere Lacerta Arten wurden in der Türkei gefunden, ob sie pflanzliche Nahrung zu sich nehmen oder nicht, ist unklar. -- Die Arten der Schildkröten. Testudo graeca L. (Grichische Schildkröte). Verbreitung: Fast in allen Geblieten der Türkei. Nährpflanzen: Steppenpflanzen, junges Getreide - Baumwolle -Luzerne - Pflanzen, Gemüsen, Weintrauben, Blätter und Juruge Triebe von vielen jungen Pflanzen. -- Emys orbicularis L. (Surnpf-oder Europäische Schildkröte). Verbreuitung: Ankara (Kerville 1939), Manisa, Bursa, Kayseri, Eski¬sehir, Adapazari, Turhal (Bodenheimer 1946 und andere). Nährpflanzen: Wedntrauben, Zucker-und Wassermelonen. - Note: Noch andere Arten der Schâldknöten leben auch in der Türkei, aber ihre Nahrung ist nicht bekannt.

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Algyroides fitzingeri, Algyroides marchi, Algyroides moreoticus, Algyroides nigropunctatus, Lacerta agilis, Lacerta lepida, Lacerta princeps, Lacerta schreiberi, Lacerta strigata, Lacerta trilineata, Lacerta viridis, Lacerta andreanszkyi, Lacerta armeniaca, Lacerta bedriagae, Lacerta brandtii, Lacerta cappadocica, Lacerta caucasica, Lacerta chlorogaster, Lacerta cyanura, Lacerta danfordi, Lacerta derjugini, Lacerta dugesii, Lacerta fraasii, Lacerta graeca, Lacerta horvathi, Lacerta jayakari, Lacerta laevis, Lacerta monticola, Lacerta mosorensis, Lacerta oxycephala, Lacerta parva, Lacerta perspicillata, Lacerta praticola, Lacerta rudis, Lacerta saxicola, Lacerta vivipara, Gallotia atlantica, Gallotia galloti, Gallotia simonyi, Podarcis erhardii, Podarcis filfolensis, Podarcis hispanica, Podarcis lilfordi, Podarcis melisellensis, Podarcis milensis, Podarcis muralis, Podarcis peloponnesiaca, Podarcis pityusensis, Podarcis sicula, Podarcis taurica, Podarcis tiliguerta, Podarcis wagleriana, Psammodromus algirus, Psammodromus blanci, Psammodromus hispanicus, Psammodromus microdactylus.

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Twenty-four species of lacertid lizards were examined at 31 sites in western Yogoslavia, Greece and Iberia. Comparative observations were made on over 4500 individual lizards, noting such features as times of activitiy, hunting methods, diet, micro- and macrohabitat, refuges used and body temperature. These data are used as a basis for assessing resource partition in related sympatric species, for find out whether different systematic groups have characteristic types of niche, and for comparing cumminity structures in the peninsulas of southern Europa. Acanthodactylus erythrurus, Algyroides marchi, Algyroides moreoticus, Algyroides nigropunctatus, Lacerta agilis, Lacerta graeca, Lacerta horvathi, Lacerta lepida, Lacerta monticola, Lacerta oxycephala, Lacerta mosorensis, Lacerta schreiberi, Lacerta trilineata, Lacerta viridis, Lacerta vivipara, Podarcis bocagei, Podarcis erhardii, Podarcis hispanica, Podarcis melisellensis, Podarcis milensis, Podarcis muralis, Podarcis peloponnesiaca, Podarcis sicula, Podarcis taurica, Psammodromus algirus, Psammodromus hispanicus.

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DNA sequence indicates the Lacertidae contain two subfamilies, Gallotiinae and Lacertinae, the latter comprising two monophyletic tribes, the Eremiadini of Africa and arid southwest and central Asia, and the Lacertini of Europe, northwest Africa and southwest and east Asia. Relationships within the 108 species of Lacertini are explored using mtDNA (291 bp cytochrome b; 329 bp 12S rRNA for 59 nominal species, and reanalysis of the data of Harris et al. 1998, and Fu 2000). The morphology of the tribe is reviewed and 64 of its characters (equivalent to 83 binary ones) also used to assess relationships. The Lacertini are assigned to 19 monophyletic units of 1 to 27 species, recognised here as the following genera (contents are indicated in brackets): Algyroides, Anatololacerta gen. nov. (L. danfordi group), Apathya (L. cappadocica group), Archaeolacerta (L. bedriagae), Dalmatolacerta gen. nov. (L. oxycephala), Darevskia (L. saxicola group), Dinarolacerta gen. nov. (L. mosorensis), Hellenolacerta gen. nov. (L. graeca), Iberolacerta (L. monticola group), Iranolacerta gen. nov. (L. brandtii and L. zagrosica), Lacerta s. str. (sand and green lizards, L. agilis group), Parvilacerta gen. nov. (L. parva and L. fraasii), Phoenicolacerta gen. nov. (L. laevis group), Podarcis (wall lizards), Scelarcis (L. perspicillata), Takydromus (Asian grass lizards), Teira (L. dugesii), Timon (ocellated lizards, L. lepida group) and Zootoca (L. vivipara). Both mtDNA and morphology indicate that Lacerta and Timon are sister taxa, and DNA suggests further possible relationships among genera (Fig. 1, p. 6). Neither DNA nor morphology indicates that the archaeolacertas (sometimes formalised as Archaeolacerta sens. lat.) form a clade. Instead, they are representatives of an ecomorph associated with living on rock exposures and using the narrow crevices that these contain. The Lacertidae probably arose in the European area, with the Gallotiinae later reaching Northwest Africa and the Canary Islands, and the ancestor of the Eremiadini invading Africa in the mid-Miocene. The Lacertini spread through much of their present European range and diversified, perhaps largely by repeated vicariance, around 12–16 My ago, producing the ancestors of the present mainly small-bodied genera, which then underwent often modest speciation. Three units spread more widely: the Lacerta-Timon clade of large-bodied lizards probably dispersed earliest, followed by Algyroides and then Podarcis. Overall, European Lacertidae show a pattern of repeated spread, often accompanied by restriction of previous groups. Expansion of Lacertini may have displaced earlier lacertid lineages from all or much of Europe; while spread of Podarcis may have restricted many other genera of Lacertini. The earlier expansion of the Lacerta-Timon clade probably did not have this effect, as difference in adult body size restricted competitive interaction with other forms. Several invasions of more distant areas also occurred: of East Asia by Takydromus over 10 My ago, and more recently of northwest Africa by Podarcis, Scelarcis and Timon, and Madeira by Teira. Relationships within the Eremiadini estimated from both mtDNA, and nDNA differ considerably from those based on morphology. They indicate relatively mesic forms may have diversified widely across Africa and given rise to at least three independent invasions of arid habitats. MtDNA also indicates that Lacerta andreanskyi belongs in the Eremiadini and may occupy a basal position there. It is assigned to a further new genus, Atlantolacerta gen. nov.

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The European Union is one of the world`s largest markets for live reptiles, such as snakes, lizards and tortoises, and the exotic and scaly animals have become increasingly fashionable as pets since the early 1990s. Even though captive-breeding efforts have improved significantly in the last few decades, a large proportion of the reptiles offered in pet shops in the EU still originate from the wild and hence the live reptile trade can have a considerable impact on the conservation status of these species.

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Four species of lacertid lizards (Podarcis muralis, Podarcis pityusensis, Lacerta viridis, and Lacerta trilineata) moving in laboratory arenas alternated bursts of locomotion with short (<1 s) pauses. Variables relating to this movement are compared under two conditions, defined as `standard` and `fleeing,` with values previously recorded for Lacerta vivipara. Mean speeds of the five species (U, in cm s-1) increased with increasing body mass (M, in g) as U = 15.1 M 0.17. When expressed in body lengths per second, however, mean speeds decreased with increasing body mass. The ratio of `fleeing` to `standard` speed was lower in adult L. vivipara than in adults of P. muralis, P. pityusensis, and L. trilineata and was lower in juvenile L. vivipara than in juvenile L. viridis; possible reasons for these differences are discussed. The incidence and duration of pauses in the five species decreased with increasing body mass.

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Es gibt sicherlich verschiedene Möglichkeiten, im Terrarium gehaltene Eidechsen zu überwintern. Der eine schwört auf seinen Keller, der andere auf eine laubgefüllte Grube in seinem Garten. Nun, wem beides nicht zur Verfügung steht, dem kann auch ein Kühlschrank ganz ausgezeichnete Dienste leisten. Freilich ist nicht gemeint, die Eidechsen frei zwischen Wurst und Käse zu betten, vielmehr bedarf es einiger Vorbereitungen. Im wesentlichen stellen sich zur Überwinterung von Eidechsen 4 Fragen: 1. wen? 2. wann? 3. wie? Und 4. wie lange? Auf diese 4 Fragen soll im in diesem Bericht eine Antwort gegeben werden.

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Es gibt sicherlich verschiedene Möglichkeiten, im Terrarium gehaltene Eidechsen zu überwintern. Der eine schwört auf seinen Keller, der andere auf eine laubgefüllte Grube in seinem Garten. Nun, wem beides nicht zur Verfügung steht, dem kann auch ein Kühlschrank ganz ausgezeichnete Dienste leisten. Freilich ist nicht gemeint, die Eidechsen frei zwischen Wurst und Käse zu betten, vielmehr bedarf es einiger Vorbereitungen. Im wesentlichen stellen sich zur Überwinterung von Eidechsen 4 Fragen: 1. wen? 2. wann? 3. wie? Und 4. wie lange? Auf diese 4 Fragen soll im in diesem Bericht eine Antwort gegeben werden.

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The longevity of several lacertid lizard species in captivity is reported. The conditions of keeping, which have been successful throughout many years, are briefly presented.

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The Columbretes archipelago consists of a group of small volcanic islets located in the western Mediterranean near the east of the Iberian Peninsula. Four of its islands are inhabited by the wall lizard Podarcis liolepis, whose populations have been considered vulnerable. The purpose of this study was to assess the level of genetic diversity across the archipelago and the possible evolutionary origin of the Columbretes lizard populations. Additionally, we investigated the evolu-tionary ecology of these populations using a DNA-based metabarcoding approach to characterise both their microbiota and trophic interactions. The genetic results reported very low genetic diversity and corroborated the conspecificity between insular populations and P. liolepis from the mainland (Peñagolosa region). The results of the metabarcoding analyses based on faecal samples were in accordance with an omnivorous ecology, suggesting that specific microbiota communities in the insular populations might be correlated with differences in host ecology and phylogeny. These results are a valuable contribution to the current understanding of the evolution of Columbretes’ lizards and provide important information for conservation management.

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A complete catalogue is provided for the type specimens of lacertid lizards in the herpetological collection of the Zoological Museum, Berlin, as of December, 1993. The collection contains a total of 514 type specimens, representing 63 taxa, of which 42 are currently regarded as valid at the specific or subspecific level. Types representing an additional four taxa appear to have been lost from the collection. The collections are especially rich in African lacertid types and in historically significant specimens collected early in the Nineteenth Century by Pallas, Eversmann, and Hemprich & Ehrenberg. Also present are the type series of many subspecies of Podarcis lilfordi and P. pityusensis described by Eisentraut.

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The morphology of cells and the organization of axons were studied in Golgi-Colonnier and toluidine blue stained preparations from the medial cerebral cortex of the lizard Lacerta pityusensis. In the medial cortex, six strata were distinguished between the superficial glial membrane and the ependyma. Strata I and II formed the outer plexiform layer, stratum III formed the cellular layer, and strata IV go VI the inner plexiform layer. The outer plexiform layer contained smooth bipolar neurons; their dendrites were oriented anteroposteriorly and their axons were directed towards the posterior zone of the brain. Five neuronal types were observed in the cellular layer. The spinous pyramidal neurons had well-developed apical dendrites and poorly developed basal ones. Their axons entered the inner plexiform layer and gave off collaterals oriented anteroposteriorly. The small, sparsely spinous pyramidal neurons had poorly developed dendrites and their axons entered the inner plexiform layer. The spinous bitufted neurons had well-developed apical and basal dendritic tufts. Their axons gave off collaterals that reached the outer and inner plexiform layers of both the dorsomedial and dorsal cortices. The sparsely spinous horizontal neurons had dendrites restricted to the outer plexiform layer. Their axons entered the inner plexiform layer. The sparsely spinous, multipolar neurons had their soma close to stratum IV and their axons entered the outer plexiform layer. In stratum V of the inner plexiform layer were large, spiny polymorphic neurons; they had dendrites with long spines, and their axons reached the cellular layer. On the basis of these results, we have subdivided the medial cortex into two subregions: the superficial region, which contains the neurons of the cellular layer and their dendritic domains, and the deep region, strata V and VI, which contains the large, spiny polymorphic neurons. The neurons in the medial cortex of these lizards resembles those in the area dentata of mammals. On this basis, the superficial region may be compared to the dentate gyrus and the deep region to the hilar region of the hippocampus of mammals.

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Some remarks are made about the variability in Podarcis pityusensis in the Formentera and adjacent island populations. Two new islet populations of this species are described for Illa de Ses Perreres and Illa d’es Fonoll Mori, close to Es Pujols (Formentera).

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In this article an introduction is given on the geological history leading to the separation of Podarcis lilfordi (GÜNTHER, 1874) and Podarcis pityusensis (BOSCÁ, 1883) as separate species, as well as a Holocene sea level rise model which combined with bathymetric data leads to an estimation of recent divergence time in populations of the Balearic lizards.

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New data on estimated divergence times of the populations of lacertid lizards in the Balearic Islands are provided in this second update of the October 2011 article: Estimating recent divergence time in populations of Podarcis lilfordi (GÜNTHER, 1874) and Podarcis pityusensis (BOSCÁ, 1883) (VAN DEN BERG 2011), which received its first update May 2012. In most cases better estimations of divergence times were available by using the NAVIONICS SonarCharts™webapp.

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In this article we make some notes on the smallest islet populations of Podarcis pityusensis (BOSCÁ, 1883) and Podarcis lilfordi (GÜNTHER, 1874), with a first description of two populations on Escull de Figueretes (Ibiza) and Carbó Petit (Menorca).

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This is already our seventh report in a series on our whereabouts while collecting data for a future revision of the present subspecific order of the endemic Balearic sisterspecies Podarcis lilfordi (GÜNTHER, 1874) and Podarcis pityusensis (BOSCÁ, 1883) (VAN DEN BERG & ZAWADZKI 2011 ; VAN DEN BERG et al. 2013 ; VAN DEN BERG et al. 2014a ; VAN DEN BERG et al. 2014b ; VAN DEN BERG et al. 2015 ; VAN DEN BERG et al. 2016). During this trip from the 8th until the 21st of April 2017, we were able to collect data at some mainland Ibiza locations, as well as on the following adjacent islands: Caragoler, Escull d’en Terra, Negra Norte, Vedranell, Conillera and Ses Margalides. We continue with the ventral coloration as a possible determining key as introduced in our 2014 trip report (VAN DEN BERG et al. 2014b). Images of the anal shields are presented of each lizard for purposes of illustration. Also we report on a new approach of assessing small islands, which have been considered without lizards in the past, or haven’t been considered at all, for the possibility of hosting a lizard population. Investigating these “uninhabited” small islands resulted in one new to describe population of Podarcis pityusensis, and a proven occurrence of a lizard population on another small island.

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Unmanned aerial vehicles (colloquially known as drones) equipped with a high-definition camera have a wide range of applications in biological research. In this article we report on our experiences using a drone to explore the surface of hard to access small islands in the North of Ibiza (Balearic Islands, Spain) for possible occurrences of lizard populations. On one of these small and unnamed islets that we call “Escull a Punta de Llevant” we detected a hitherto unknown population of Podarcis pityusensis.

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The Ibiza wall lizard Podarcis pityusensis (Boscá, 1883) is the only living endemic land vertebrate of the Pityusic Islands. It has not only become the symbol of these islands, but also plays a significant role in the sub-archipelago’s ecosystem. For centuries, Ibiza was famous for being completely free of snakes. Unfortunately, this is no longer the case. The introduction of three snake species on Ibiza has changed the natural balance of the island. The horseshoe whip snake Hemorrhois hippocrepis is of particular concern as it is threatening to wipe out the native lizards. Not only does Podarcis pityusensis disappear at a worrying rate on Ibiza: the population from the little offshore island Illot de S’Oro, representing the subspecies Podarcis pityusensis hortae, has already become extinct due to this new predator.

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More than three decades of fascination for the endemic Balearic sisterspecies Podarcis lilfordi (GÜNTHER, 1874) and Podarcis pityusensis (BOSCÁ, 1883), resulted in 30 trips (1980-2013) to the home of these lacertid lizards, in which we studied their ethology as well as their distribution and geographical differences in pattern and coloration. In comparison to prior scientific studies that led to an inflationary description of subspecies, we often found wide variations within populations and their subspecific characteristics. The question “To be distinct, or not to be distinct” is, to our opinion, not answered correctly in most cases. In order to gather data for a future revision of the present subspecific order, we started in 2011 to collect data of these lizards in a structured way, and storing this data in a free accessible database (www.pityusensis.nl). Later in 2011 we enhanced our dataset by gathering tissue samples of the lizards, using the non invasive technique of buccal swabbing, for future accompanied DNA research.

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This is our fourth report in a series on our whereabouts while collecting data for a future revision of the present subspecific order of the endemic Balearic sisterspecies Podarcis lilfordi (GÜNTHER, 1874) and Podarcis pityusensis (BOSCÁ, 1883), which data are stored in our free accessible database at www.pityusensis.nl (VAN DEN BERG & ZAWADZKI 2011 ; VAN DEN BERG et al. 2013 ; VAN DEN BERG et al. 2014). During this trip from the 22nd of May untill the 6th of June 2014, we were able to collect data on various mainland Ibiza locations, as well as the following adjacent islands; Tagomago, Dau Gran, Negra Llevant, Bosc de Conillera, Conillera, Espartar, S’Espardell de S’Espartar, and Escui de S’Espartar. We also visited Escui de Cala d’Hort, and can confirm this rock is without lizards. We also introduce a simplified representation of the ventral coloration as a possible determining key.

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We report on our visit to the largest of the Ses Margalides islands during our spring 2015 herpetological trip to Ibiza. The island habitat is described, the herpetological history of the Podarcis pityusensis population on this island is summarized, and additional data of this population is given. Among this new data are pictures of red bellied green backed lizards, blue lizards, and a description of a light gray color morph, all previously unknown to this population.

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This is our fifth report in a series on our whereabouts while collecting data for a future revision of the present subspecific order of the endemic Balearic sisterspecies Podarcis lilfordi (GÜNTHER, 1874) and Podarcis pityusensis (BOSCÁ, 1883), which data are stored in our free accessible database at www.pityusensis.nl (VAN DEN BERG & ZAWADZKI 2011 ; VAN DEN BERG et al. 2013 ; VAN DEN BERG et al. 2014a ; VAN DEN BERG et al. 2014b). During this trip from the 9th of May until the 23rd of May 2015, we were able to collect data on a few mainland Ibiza locations, as well as the following adjacent islands: Punta Galera, Es Canaret, Illa de la Xanga (Sal Rossa), Pouet de Ses Illetes, Formentera, Purroig, Es Vedrà, Rates, Malví Pla (North), Malví Rodó (South), S’Espardell, Calders, Penjats and Ses Margalides. We continue with the ventral coloration as a possible determining key as introduced in our 2014 trip report (VAN DEN BERG et al. 2014b). Images of the anal shields are presented of each lizard for purposes of illustration.

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A short introduction and a hypothetical model concerning color formation in lacertid lizards is presented. Thereafter we observe and discus the ontogenetic changes in a single female captive bred Podarcis pityusensis lizard from Formentera (Balearic islands/Spain). Striking transformations concerning coloration are observed.

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This is already our sixth report in a series on our whereabouts while collecting data for a future revision of the present subspecific order of the endemic Balearic sisterspecies Podarcis lilfordi (GÜNTHER, 1874) and Podarcis pityusensis (BOSCÁ, 1883), which data are stored in our database at www.pityusensis.nl (VAN DEN BERG & ZAWADZKI 2011 ; VAN DEN BERG et al. 2013 ; VAN DEN BERG et al. 2014a ; VAN DEN BERG et al. 2014b ; VAN DEN BERG et al. 2015). During this trip from the 27th of March until the 9th of April 2016, we were able to collect data at some mainland Ibiza locations, as well as on the following adjacent islands: Sa Mesquida, S’Hort, S’Illeta de Cala Salada, Vedranell, Rates, Bleda Plana, Murada, Bleda Na Bosc and S’Espardell de S’Espartar. We continue with the ventral coloration as a possible determining key as introduced in our 2014 trip report (VAN DEN BERG et al. 2014b). Images of the anal shields are presented of each lizard for purposes of illustration.

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Within a species one can often distinguish between groupings which correspond to objectively different levels of differentiation. The level of these differentiations may vary between semlspecies and local population rank. On the other hand the zoological system supplies us with only one category for the nomenclatoral expression of infraspeclflc relative relationship. Several examples taken from the European herpetofauna are used to demonstrate the absurdity of infraspeclflc concepts currently accepted for many European, especially Mediterranean reptile species. An alternative to this unsatisfactory situation would be the concept of `megasubspecies` as developed by American ornithologists. This concept would allow to express Infraspeclflc relationship also in herpetology better than before, but nevertheless in harmony with the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature.

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As aconsequence of the general popularity of classic Greek and Roman culture in the 19th century Germany, a renewed interest arose also for the Mediterranean fauna. Along with the Darwinian influence on evolutionary biology in the second half of the 19th century, Mediterranean lizards, particularly lacertids, became favoured study objects. The lizards served as model organisms for the earliest steps of speciation (formation of `varieties` or `races`) and shed light on adaptations to extreme, in particular insular, environments.Together with the contemporarily emerging concept of the geographical subspecies, the number of intraspecific taxa described and names erected grwe considerably. I review the relevant work of the most important zoologists from the German-speaking zone who took part in the exploration of Mediterranean amphibians and reptiles. Many of them had a much wider scope, both systematically and geographically, but nevertheless contributed significantly to Mediterranean herpetology. I lay special emphasis to the study of Balearic Islands lacertids through German-speaking authors.

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In the herpetological collection of ZFMK 528 scientific species group names are represented by type materi- al. Of these, 304 names are documented by primary type specimens (onomatophores) while for 224 further names sec- ondary type specimens (typoids) are available, ranging chronologically from 1801 to 2010. The list is a shortened pred- ecessor of a comprehensive type catalogue in progress. It lists name bearing types with their catalogue numbers includ- ing information on further type series members also in other institutions, while secondary types are listed only by pres- ence, both in ZFMK and other collections including holotype repositories. Geographic origin and currently valid names are also provided.

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Es wird über einen 1930 angesetzten Versuch berichtet, bei dem auf einem bis dahin eidechsenfreien Felseiland (Dado Grande bei Ibiza, Pityusen) Männchen einer melanistischen und Weibchen einer grünen Inselpopulation von Podarcis pityusensis ausgesetzt wurden. Die Untersuchung von sechs fünf Jahre später gefangenen Tieren ergibt, dass die Vermischung zu erhöhter Variabilität und gesteigertem Größenwuchs geführt hat. Eine erneute Kontrolle dieses noch vorläufigen Ergebnisses wird angeregt.

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We here reply to the arguments put forward by ARNOLD (2000) and LANZA & BOSCHERIN (2000) concerning the gender of the genus Podarcis. ARNOLD`S argument that a change of endings ot adjective flectible species names threatens stability is rejected by clearly following the articles of the current edition of the Code (ICZN 1999). We finally conclude that the gender of Podarcis must be masculine for the following reasons: (1) WAGLER (1830) did not determine the gender by combination with any species name nor by statement, (2) the name Podarcis is of common variable gender, (3) the Principle of First Reviser does not apply to determination of gender of names, (4) the Code clearly states that a name of common variable gender is to be treated as masculine.

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Lacertid lizards frequently shed the outer layers of the epidermis of the paired male intromittent organs, the hemipenes. The hemipenial sloughs so formed are saclike and reproduce all the external features of the hemipenes in great detail. Sloughs are deposited immediately after the first defecation of the day and are produced almost every morning during the breeding season. I have observed these in 48 lacertid species, including members of the genera Acanthodactylus, Adolfus, Algyroides, Gallotia, Holaspis, Lacerta s.l., Latastia, Podarcis, Psammodromus, and Takydromus. As these forms represent all three subfamilies of the Lacertidae, the phenomenon is likely to have been present in the common ancestor of the family. It may even be a general squamate feature, as it has also been observed in the distantly related varanid Varanus acanthurus. Frequent shedding of hemipenial sloughs violates pan-epidermal synchrony, the belief that the epidermis of squamates is shed simultaneously over all parts of the body, and indicates that the hemipenial epidermis is under different hormonal control from the rest of the skin. The function of frequent shedding of the hemipenial epidermis is not known for certain, but there is a wide range of possible hypotheses. Some of these are involved in increasing the efficiency of copulation and ameliorating its costs, while others emphasise the possible signalling function of the hemipenial sloughs.

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n response to two previously published accounts, it is pointed out that successful incubation of lizard eggs does not primarily depend on the medium on or in which the eggs rest, nor on the incubator. Successful incubation is solely based on the two physi- cal variables of humidity (measured as water potential in kPa) and temperature. When these variables are within the proper range (-400/-150 kPa and 25-30°C) then the chief criteria are met. The inaccurate suggestion that the sex of lacertids is re- lated to incubation temperature is rejected because the gender of the young in this group of reptiles is determined genetically. The single report cited in the scientific literature that discussed TSD in a lacertid (Podarcis pityusensis) is refuted by consid- ering larger samples of incubated eggs. Similarly, reports that water potential of the substrate affects sex determination have also been discredited in the scientific lit- erature. The sometimes in hobby literature propa- gated short, artificially induced additional hibernation soon after the summer to bring on an additional reproductive period with egg production in November/December, is objectionable. The stress on the animals is such that the health of the lizards is com- promised. Moreover, among serious reptile enthusiasts there is only a limited demand for lacertids, discounting the need for so many offspring.

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The interspecific relationships among female size, clutch size, egg size, and hatchling size were examined for 64 European lacertids. The eggs of all species increased linearly in both linear dimensions and mass during incubation. Across species initial egg mass was positively correlated with juvenile mass, with an allometric relationship exponent of 0.87. Initial egg mass across species increased proportionally with female mass to the power of 0.57. Moreover, an increase in maternal mass was also accompanied by an increase in clutch size. The number of eggs per clutch across species scaled with female mass to the power of 0.39. Removing the effect of female mass resulted in a negative correlation between egg mass and clutch size. Species for which the average egg size was lower than expected on the basis of female mass, tended to have larger relative clutch size. The total egg mass per clutch was about one third of female mass (exponent 0.94).

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The Balearic Islands are an archipelago located in the Western Mediterranean Sea. Their isolation from the mainland allowed the establishment of different faunas on each island. In Mallorca, the Pliocene fauna was composed of the so-called Myotragus-fauna (mainly consisting of a bovid, a glirid and a soricid). In Menorca, it was constituted by the giant rabbit-fauna (mainly consisting of a giant rabbit and a tortoise), and in the Pityusics by a tortoise, a lizard and two rodents. A main faunal turnover took place during the Late Pliocene or Early Pleistocene: the Myotragus-fauna reached Menorca and replaced the giant rabbit fauna. In the Pityusics, all mammals and the tortoise became extinct before the Late Pleistocene for unknown reasons, leaving birds and the lizard as the only vertebrates of these islands. Almost all the endemic vertebrates of the Balearics became extinct probably due to the first human arrival to the islands.

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Phylogenetic relationships and timings of major cladogenesis events are investigated in the Balearic Island lizards Podarcis lilfordi and Podarcis pityusensis using 2675 bp of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences. Partitioned Bayesian and Maximum Parsimony analyses provided a well-resolved phylogeny with high node-support values. Bayesian MCMC estimation of node dates was investigated by comparing means of posterior distributions from different subsets of the sequence against the most robust analysis which used multiple partitions and allowed for rate heterogeneity among branches under a rate-drift model. Evolutionary rates were systematically underestimated and thus divergence times overestimated when sequences containing lower numbers of variable sites were used (based on ingroup node constraints). The following analyses allowed the best recovery of node times under the constant-rate (i.e., perfect clock) model: (i) all cytochrome b sequence (partitioned by codon position), (ii) cytochrome b (codon position 3 alone), (iii) NADH dehydrogenase (subunits 1 and 2; partitioned by codon position), (iv) cytochrome b and NADH dehydrogenase sequence together (six gene–codon partitions), (v) all unpartitioned sequence, (vi) a full multipartition analysis (nine partitions). Of these, only (iv) and (vi) performed well under the rate-drift model. These findings have significant implications for dating of recent divergence times in other taxa. The earliest P. lilfordi cladogenesis event (divergence of Menorcan populations), occurred before the end of the Pliocene, some 2.6 Ma. Subsequent events led to a West Mallorcan lineage (2.0 Ma ago), followed 1.2 Ma ago by divergence of populations from the southern part of the Cabrera archipelago from a widely-distributed group from north Cabrera, northern and southern Mallorcan islets. Divergence within P. pityusensis is more recent with the main Ibiza and Formentera clades sharing a common ancestor at about 1.0 Ma ago. Climatic and sea level changes are likely to have initiated cladogenesis, with lineages making secondary contact during periodic landbridge formation. This oscillating cross-archipelago pattern in which ancient divergence is followed by repeated contact resembles that seen between East-West refugia populations from mainland Europe.

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The well known occurrence of P. pityusensis on old overgrown walls in Palma de Mallorca is mentioned. The species is imported: they originate on the Pityusic Islands and not the Balearics. The basic colour of this lizard is moss green. Their markings re very variable; individuals were found varying from uniform green, non marked, to heavily marked. The question arises why this lizard which elsewhere utilises great variety of biotopes, does not seem able tom populate a larger part of Mallorca. It is, however, clear that apparently all suitable habitat is already utilised by Tarentola mauritanica.

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During a journey to Spain a population of Podarcis pityusensis pityusensis could be found near the former habitat at the `Plaza de las Glorias` in Barcelona on 10. May 2007.

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This thesis comprises part of a wider project that addresses the evolution of Mediterranean lizards of the genus Podarcis (Wagler, 1830), and is mainly focused on insular populations. This genus is widespread across the Mediterranean basin. They exhibit a great intraspecific variability in morphological traits. In particular, melanic and non-melanic populations (which are completely green or brown, and/or with intermediate coloration) are found on different islands. The causes for this variability remain unknown. The Podarcis genus contains various insular endemism such as Podarcis tiliguerta from Corsica and Sardinia islands, and P. lilfordi and P. pityusensis from the Balearic archipelago. The Mediterranean basin is considered a biodiversity hotspot due to the presence of an exceptional number of endemic species and Podarcis provides an important component of this biodiversity. It can provide information on the effects of fragmentation and/or degradation of habitat. Analyses of Podarcis also have important implications for conservation of the group itself: understanding the evolutionary framework provides a basis for future conservation actions. The present thesis is focused on the molecular study of the evolution of several Mediterranean Podarcis. It aims to build on and extend previous studies that made evolutionary inferences from just the mitochondrial DNA. This is achieved by analysing several nuclear markers (MC1R, RAG1, APOBE28, BLC9L, KIAA2018 and KIF24) in combination with mtDNA data. The main aim is to address two important evolutionary questions: i) Factors determining melanism in insular populations P. lilfordi and P. pityusensis present an important colour variation and polymorphism in the MC1R gene has been related to pigmentation in other species. Therefore, the relationship between DNA substitutions and melanism in different populations was studied. We did not detect any differences in the MC1R sequence that we analysed and so this sequence does not appear to be the basis of the colour variation in these Balearic Podarcis. Differences in gene expression were also compared between melanic and nonmelanic individuals, but no differences that were directly related to MC1R expression were detected. Nevertheless, the transcriptome profiles of melanic and non-melanic individuals from two populations of P. lilfordi did show some differences. The main differences found between the two groups were: non-melanic samples showed overexpression of stress-response genes, while melanic individuals had higher metabolic rates and an increased inflammatory response to exogenous antigens. Despite finding differences in expression, our study was unable to reveal major insights into the genetic basis of melanism in these island lizards. ii) Phylogeny and phylogeography of different endemic species. This work contributes important findings relevant to the systematics and evolution of the species P. tiliguerta endemic to Corsica and Sardina. Using Bayesian phylogenetic dating, we determined that this species originated ~11 Ma ago. Both markers (nuclear genes and mtDNA) showed a high level of intraspecific divergence, especially between Corsica and Sardinia. Ancient divergence (which was estimated at 9.5 Ma ago) and associated high levels of between-island lineage sorting in nuclear markers support the view that Corsican and Sardinian populations should be recognized as two different species. Podarcis were also studied from the Columbretes archipelago, a small island group off the coast east of Spain. Populations were previously recognized as a subspecies of P. hispanica or as P. atrata species. However, the suitability of this taxonomic designation has been made unclear by recent systematics studies of Podarcis that have led to major taxonomic changes. We used nuclear and mitochondrial genes to define their phylogenetic relationships. Columbretes populations were found to be most closely related to the new taxon P. liolepis.

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The association between polymorphism at the mc1r locus and colour variation was studied in two wall lizard species (Podarcis lilfordi and P. pityusensis) from the Balearic archipelago. Podarcis lilfordi comprises several deep mitochondrial lineages, the oldest of which originated in the Pliocene, while much shallower mitochondrial lineages are found in P. pityusensis. Here, we examined whether specific substitutions were associated with the melanic colouration found in islet populations of these species. Homologous nuclear sequences covering most of the mc1r gene were obtained from 73 individuals from melanic and non-melanic Podarcis from different populations (the entire gene was also sequenced in six selected individuals). MtDNA gene trees were also constructed and used as a framework to assess mc1r diversity. Mc1r showed greater polymorphism in P. lilfordi than in P. pityusensis. However, we observed no substitutions that were common to all melanic individuals across the two species. Only one significant association was detected in the mc1r partial sequence, but this was a synonymous A/G mutation with A alleles being more abundant in melanic populations. In addition, there were no associations between the main dominant phenotypes (green and brown, blue and yellow spots and ventral colour) and synonymous or non-synonymous substitutions in the mc1r gene. There was no statistical evidence of selection on mc1r. This study suggests no relationship between mc1r polymorphism and colour variation in Balearic Podarcis.

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La innovació pedagògica ha estat un dels punts claus de l’educació en els darrers temps. Recentment, es parla sobre metodologies que tot i ser postulades temps enrere, no han eclosionant fins fa poc a les notres aules. Es tracta de l’Aprenentatge basat en Projectes (ABP), el qual es troba enfocat a canviar la tradicionaliat de les aules per una educació innovadora i centrada en els subjectes, on es cerca que ells mateixos siguin els propis creadors del seu aprenentatge. Actualment, són pocs els centres que treballent l’ABP, però iniciatives com la de l’IES Sa Blanca Dona, on personalment he tingut el plaer de formar-hi part, mostren un model d’organització i superació de barreres a seguir per a la resta. Un total de 13 projectes, són els que aquest centre ha desenvolupat a les aules de 1r i 3r de l’ESO; on les conseqüencies que en deriven, els han animat a seguir apostant per la seva implementació. El document presenta una proposta on es posen en pràctica els diversos argument treballats quant a la metodologia tan en aquest document, com en el Màster en Formació del Professorat. La proposta, es basa en l’estudi d’una de les espècies endèmiques més representatives de les Pitiüses, les sargantanes (Podarcis pityusensis), i la major amenaça actual a la que es troben sotmeses, les espècies d’ofidis invasores. En resum, fomentar la cosciència sobre el medi ambient que ens rodeja i divulgar l’ABP, són dues de les peces clau d’aquest document.

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Lacertids are the dominant group of lizards throughout the Mediterranean Basin. Their role in food web transfer of matter and energy from arthropods and other small invertebrates to birds and mammals constitutes a major function within Mediterranean ecosystems. For many years, prey consumption by lacertids was thought to be almost indiscriminate, not much more than a byproduct of habitat use. However, increasing evidence does not support this passive view. Analyses of prey availability have revealed active prey selection/avoidance in several species. Others show an internal tendency (i.e., historical constraints) to consume specific animal items (ants, clumped prey) or plant matter (seeds, nectar, pollen, leaves). Behavioural experiments showed that lacertids not only identify different prey types by both visual and chemical cues but also modify their feeding behaviour integrating past experiences. Furthermore, size, sex, reproductive state, body condition, tail loss and probably other lizard features are relevant for feeding ecology. However, less attention has been devoted to abiotic factors such as temperature and humidity. More experimental studies of the influences of competitors, predators and parasites on diet are needed. Even though it is controversial, optimal foraging theory provides a conceptual background for future studies. The evolutionary history of the various lacertid lineages, which constrains their morphology and physiology and eventually produces exaptative traits, is to be considered as well. Finally, methodology in field sampling, lab work and statistical analysis needs to be developed. Recommendations are given as to when and where to sample, which compartment should be analysed, which is the appropriate sample size, how to assess trophic availability, which statistical descriptors should be used and how they should be compared.

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The Ibiza Wall Lizard (Podarcis pityusensis), a Balearic endemism, has been observed in its original habitat to feed not only on Arthropoda but also on plants. The diet of an introduced population living in the city of Barcelona (continental Spain) was analyzedin order to test the feeding habits of this species excluding the insular effect. As in the islands, the clumped prey (Homoptera and Formicidae) represented the bulk of the diet (>50%). The trophic use of these taxa changed drastically throughout the year but not among classes (especially both sexes) which differed only in the secondary preys. The prey size depended on the lizard size and the trophic diversity was high except in winter. The plantportion was limited (5.3%) but it was completely absent in the syntopic Podarcis hispanica. Seeds, flowers and other plant matter were mainly eaten by adults in summer. This trophic strategy is considered to be a derived feature which has probably evolved several times under insular conditions. However, conversely to other non-balearic Podarcis, its persistence in Podarcis pityusensis after a translocation to a continental locality indicates some kind of historical constraints. Nevertheless, this species still remains highly adaptable showing that the endogenous influence is only partial.

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A parasitological survey was carried out to determine the relationships between the helminth fauna and biological traits of the hosts in three Algerian populations of Podarcis lizards belonging to two different evolutionary lineages. Size, sex, and locality of collection, as well as the infracommunities and component communities, were analyzed. Very low values of parasite infection parameters and diversity were found in all three populations. This is in accordance with the feeding habits of these lizard hosts, which only eat animal prey and no plant matter. Spauligodon saxicolae (Nematoda: Pharyngodonidae), a specialist in lizards, is reported here for the first time in Africa. This nematode was the dominant parasite species for the three populations of lizards regardless their phylogenetic lineage, size, sex, and environmental conditions.

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Biological invasions are one of the main causes of biodiversity loss on islands in the Anthropocene. The direct catastrophic effects of these invasions are frequently reported (for example, causing the extirpation of species on islands), but these extinctions can also alter the biota through indirect effects. At the beginning of the SXXI, the importation of ornamental trees to Ibiza introduced, among others, the horseshoe snake (Hemorrhois hippocrepis). This has been expanding across the island, eventually exterminating populations of Ibizan wall rock lizards (Podarcis pityusensis) locally. The disappearance of a key species for the ecosystem such as P. pityusensis could lead to cascading consequences affecting both arthropods (common prey of lizards) and the vegetation of the ecosystem. Throughout the year 2021, we defined 18 study areas with very similar characteristics: rainfed fields with extensive agriculture with dry stone walls and separated from each other by more than 2km. The study areas were grouped into three types based on the presence of only lizards, only snakes or with both species present, with six replicates each. Our samplings have revealed that the trophic cascade caused by the loss in density and extinction of native lizards has caused a significant increase in the abundance of arthropods. This has turned H. hippocrepis into a threat to this delicate Mediterranean island ecosystem since the increase of the arthropod’s densities could become agricultural pests or vectors of pathogens.

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We discuss three aspects of the thermal biology of lacertid lizards. First, we provide an overview of the available data on field body temperatures (Tb), the thermal sensitivity of various performance functions and selected body temperatures in different species of lacertid lizards. We also briefly summarise information on the mechanisms of thermoregulation. Second, we discuss recent developments to estimate the »precision« of thermoregulation, and the contribution of distinct behavioural mechanisms. Finally, we revise available evidence for the existence of evolutionary adjustments of thermal characteristics in lacertid lizards. Existing studies have mainly dealt with within- and among-species differences in thermoregulatory behaviour (selected temperatures) and thermal physiology of adults (optimal temperatures, heating rates). Available data provide only limited evidence for clear-cut evolutionary shifts in thermal physiology characteristics along climatic gradients.

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We review the enormous photographic material obtained from the 80`s of the 20th century to the present and the descriptions of body colouration of the many consulted collections of Podarcis pityusensisfrom the island of Formentera. The wide variety of colourations is evident, with a large intra-population and inter-population polymorphism existing on the island of Formentera. A north-south gradual change is observed, especially at the Punta des Trucadors, parallel to the changes in the substrate and the vegetation. It is also noted that not all the colors of Podarcis pityusensis formenteraeare present in all parts of the island, but that each region has its own colourations, and always with a high intra-population richness.Comparing the material obtained at different periods, it can be seen that the geographic differences in lizard body colouration persist over time.The offspring always have the same colouration throughout the island.

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The name Ibiza means `Island of Bes`, god who drives away snakes. With a marked Phoenician cultural influence, have snakes been observed never in the Pitiusas at historical time. This absence and the great density and diversity of lizards (Podarcis pityusensis) is an ecological characteristic, but assumed as a sign of personal and social identity. The arrival of snakes from 2003 alarmed the entire Ibiza society. Aware of the scarcity of governmental human resources available in front of the enormous problem of invasive snakes, the Institut d`Estudis Eivissencs in 2020 structured a volunteer group that maintains snake traps scattered throughout the island of Ibiza. Taking advantage of the dispersed distribution of housing throughout the island territory. To activate a trap requires to take care of a live mouse that has to be visited constantly, assumable task for a volunteer who lives in the area. The mapped data obtained with 334 traps during the 2021 and 2022 campaigns are presented. The sense of East- West colonization is appreciated with a strip in the center of the island with increasing catches. To the east, area where traps have been installed during longer time, catches tend to decrease. While to the west of this strip you can see the area, without captures, not yet colonized by invasive snakes.

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Two new subspecies: Podarcis pityusensis canaretensis and Podarcis pityusensis martinezi, are described, according with an analysis of 15 variables. They complete the polytipic species Podarcis (= Lacerta) pityusensis. Their geografic distribution is limited to two smalls islets: Illot des Canaret and Illot de Sa Sal Rosa, near the Ibiza island, in the Balearic Islands.

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EL ESTUDIO ABORDADO EN LA TESIS VERSA SOBRE LA CARACTERIZACION TAXONOMICA DE LA LAGARTIJA DE LAS PITIUSAS PODARCIS PITVUSENSIS. SE ANALIZAN LAS DISTINTAS POBLACIONES DESDE TRES ASPECTOS DISTINTOS: EL ANALISISBIOMETRICO EL ANALISIS ELECTROFORETICO DE DISTINTAS PROTEINAS Y EL ANALISIS COLORIMETRICO. LOS ANALISIS ESTADISTICOS APLICADOS SOBRE LAS VARIANTES BIOMETRICAS DEMUESTRAN LA EXISTENCIA DE DIVERSOS GRUPOS DE POBLACIONES MUY SEMEJANTES ENTRE SI. LA VARIABILIDAD DE LA ESPECIE NO SOLO ES FENOTIPICA SINO QUE TAMBIEN ES GENETICA DETECTANDOSE UNA DIVERSIDAD EN ESTOS CARACTERES SUPERIOR A LA ESPERADA EN REPTILES. SE OBSERVA UNA ALTA HETEROSIS QUE ES CARACTERISTICA DE LA ESPECIE LO QUE PARECE DEMOSTRAR QUE ESTA SE ENCUENTRA EN LAS PRIMERAS FASES DE COLONIZACIONY ADAPTACION A LOS DIFERENTES HABITATS OFRECEN LAS ISLAS QUE OCUPA. SE CONSTATA LA ACCION DEL EFECTO FUNDADOR Y LA DERIVA GENETICA EN LOS TRES ASPECTOS CONSIDERADOS EN LA TESIS ASI COMO UNA TENDENCIA EVOLUTIVA HACIA EL AUMENTO DE TAMAÑO SIEMPRE QUE NO EXISTA UNA PRESION SELECTIVA CONTRARIA. SUCEDE LO MISMO CON EL MELANISMO. CONSIDERANDO EL ESTADO EVOLUTIVO ACTUAL DE LA ESPECIE REFLEJADO EN LA PLASTICIDAD DE LAS DISTINTAS POBLACIONES DE ESTALAARTIJA Y EN LA ADAPTACION QUE MANIFIESTAN EN CADA NICHO CONCRETO ASI COMO EL CONCEPTO RESTRICTIVO ACTUAL DE SUBESPECIE LA AUTORA CONSIDERA QUE SOLO PUEDEN CONSIDERARSE SEIS TAXONES SUBESPECIFICOS O SUBESPECIES DE LA LAGARTIJA DE LAS PITIUSAS.

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In this paper are presented the results obtained with 45 populations of Podarcis pityusensis. Several multivariant technics are performed: discriminant analysis, cluster analysis and canonic analysis of populations. These populations present gradual change in all their biometric characteristics, and also a great interpopulation variability, that invalidate th statistical methods to discriminate between all of them. In different analysis very related population groups are found, that suggests they are constitute the same subspecies, in the actual taxonomic sense. These groups always inhabits islands with the same geological age, it is therefore necessary to complete the study with othr biological reflections, all of which are getting ready.

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The dorsal, side and belly colours of 118 specimens of Podarcis pityusensis have been analysed with physical methods. Twenty samples from 16 islands have been chosen, 3 of then from Eivissa Island (Ibiza), 2 from Formentera Island and 2 from Espardell Island. The results reveal great colouration differences between the same island samples and sometimes similar colouration between different islands (different subspecies). specimens. This feature seems to show the colour criteria is not useful in taxonomic subjects for this species.

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The melanic forms of Ibiza Wall Lizard (Podarcis pityusensis) inhabit the old- est islets: ses Bledes, sa Margalida and Murada. There are melanic popula- tions on two Pitiusa islets where we would expect to find non-melanic lizards. This article offers a possible answer to this unexpected melanism.

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The snakes arrival to the island of Ibiza has been confirmed twenty years ago, but there is still no solid and coherent strategy to face the greatest ecological risk that threatens native species and our ecosystems. A review of these twenty years is presented, how the science, legislation and environmental ma- nagement have focused the problem. The strategies that have been implemen- ted, and what is the future forecast are presented. We propose to start the installation of small Lizards Reserves in public or private spaces that conserve the factors that configure the Podarcis pityusensis pityusensis habitat.

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The variation in morphological and colouring features shown by the insular lacertid populations of Podarcis pityusensis is discussed from the point of view of their adaptive advantages to specific insular ecosystems. Insularity factors, i.e. area and island-age, have been found to be related to average body size, and the average luminosity of each population. Populations tend to show a size increase, a greater morphological homogeneity and darker dorsal colouring on smaller and older islands. Genetic drift seems to play a secondary role, whereas a positive selection in favour of melanism and giantism is observed. Both features are not linked as cause and effect, but seem to share a common cause: isolation and time enough to allow selection to take place. Predation, though slight in degree, does exist, and seems to be one of the selective pressure favouring melanism, together with the parallel trend towards an increase in body size and the need to an effective thermoregulation during the early hours of the day.

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Eivissa i Formentera. Sargantanes i illes, escrit per la biòloga Antònia Maria Cirer i amb imatges de Jordi Serapio, fotògraf especialitzat en natura i medi ambient, és un compendi exhaustiu dels illots pitiusos amb les seves característiques més remarcables i, entre elles, l`inqüestionable protagonisme de les sargantanes que els habiten. Cada població de sargantanes està sotme

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Since 2016, the Consortium for the Recovery of the Fauna of the Balearic Islands (COFIB) has carried out actions to control invasive snakes on the islands of Ibiza and Formentera entrusted to it by the Government of the Balearic Islands. These invasive snakes on the Pitiusas Islands include Hemorrhois hippocrepis and Zamenis scalaris. The two species are present in Ibiza and the second in Formentera. Since the beginning of the project, the capture effort has been increasing in relation to the number of traps used, starting the campaigns in Ibiza with 145 traps in 2016 and ending with 1,246 traps in 2022. Similarly, the trap effort has increased from 78 traps in 2016 to 394 in 2022. Thanks to this effort in relation to the number of traps and the number of days of trapping with a trap, a total of 7,118 captures of H. hippocrepis and 293 captures of Z. scalaris have been obtained in Ibiza, allocating a total of 466,130 days of trapping. While in the case of Formentera a total of 4,237 Z. scalaris have been captured with a total of 254,909 days of trapping. In both species and islands, higher capture rates have been observed in the months from May to June, and in the case of H. hemorrhois in Ibiza also in July. Parallel to the work to control invasive snakes, the COFIB maintains a close collaboration with the UIB Interdisciplinary Ecology Group, with which all the captures made since the beginning of the project are analyzed and from which valuable information is extracted that allows correcting and direct the efforts to control snakes in the Pitiusas Islands.

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Island tameness (reduced escape behaviour on islands where prey have experienced prolonged relaxation of predation pressure) is known in several taxa, although the relationships between recent predation pressure and escape on islands are poorly known. We investigated escape by numerous populations exposed to differing predation pressure of two sister species of Podarcis lizards in the Balearic Islands. Our main findings are that flight initiation distance was greater in Podarcis pityusensis than Podarcis lilfordi and increased as predation pressure increased in P. pityusensis. Island tameness led to extinction of P. lilfordi on Menorca and Mallorca following anthropogenic introduction of predators; this species is extant only on nearby islets. The lack of relationship between recent predation pressure and flight initiation distance in P. lilfordi indicates that the historically acquired deficit in the ability to adjust escape behaviour to predation pressure still exists. Podarcis pityusensis, which was exposed to greater natural predation pressure before human introduction of predators, survives on Ibiza and Formentera, as well as on islets. Retention of the ability to respond to predation pressure is consistent with our finding that flight initiation distance increases as predation pressure increases among current populations.

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One of Darwin`s most widely known conjectures is that prey are tame on remote islands, where mammalian predators are absent. Many species appear to permit close approach on such islands, but no comparative studies have demonstrated reduced wariness quantified as flight initiation distance (FID; i.e. predator–prey distance when the prey begins to flee) in comparison with mainland relatives. We used the phylogenetic comparative method to assess influence of distance from the mainland and island area on FID of 66 lizard species. Because body size and predator approach speed affect predation risk, we included these as independent variables. Multiple regression showed that FID decreases as distance from mainland increases and is shorter in island than mainland populations. Although FID increased as area increased in some models, collinearity made it difficult to separate effects of area from distance and island occupancy. FID increases as SVL increases and approach speed increases; these effects are statistically independent of effects of distance to mainland and island occupancy. Ordinary least-squares models fit the data better than phylogenetic regressions, indicating little or no phylogenetic signal in residual FID after accounting for the independent variables. Our results demonstrate that island tameness is a real phenomenon in lizards.

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Animal diets crucially affect fitness, yet many aspects of their ultimate determinants are unknown. The distribution and extent of herbivory in lizards, its evolutionary history, and ecological factors that may favour it are discussed. Most lizards are exclusively or primarily carnivorous, yet many species eat some plants and a few are almost exclusively herbivorous. Based on a literature survey of diets of over 450 lizard species, the distribution and degree of omnivory and herbivory are described. Some plants occur in the diets of slightly over half of lizard species, and plants formed 10% or more of the dietary volume of 12.1% of species, and 90% or more of the diet of 0.8% of species. The greatest percentage of omnivorous species (> 10% plant diet), over 30% in each, and highest mean percentage plant matter in the diet are in Iguanidae, Corytophanidae, Gerrhosauridae, Agamidae, Xantusiidae, and Tropiduridae. Numerous other omnivores occur in Lacertidae and Scincidae and fewer in several additional families. Herbivorous lizards (> 90% plant volume) tend to be folivorous and to possess adaptations for processing leaves, including specialized dentition for cutting or reducing leaves, elongated intestines, colic valves that slow passage of food, and intestinal flora that digest cellulose. Omnivorous lizards lacking such specializations may eat some leaves, but consume much more fruit, flowers, and seeds, plant parts that are easy to digest, likely to be very abundant seasonally, and may be highly nutritious. Some lizards eat nectar and pollen; even sap is eaten by at least one gecko. Ontogenetic increase in plant consumption and decrease in prey consumption is known, but its generality has been controversial. Such ontogeny has been demonstrated in three iguanid species, a skink, a lacertid, two tropidurids, a phrynosomatid, and two corytophanids, but it does not occur in some other species. Thus, the presences of ontogenetic variation must be evaluated for each species. The importance of specific foods may also vary with age. Omnivory and/or herbivory have originated in many lizard families, with at least nine origins in Iguania and 23 in Scleroglossa. Origins have been rare in Gekkonoidea and Anguimorpha and common in Scincomorpha, especially in Lacertidae and Scincidae. Losses of omnivory have been much less frequent than gains. Only a few origins can account for all the herbivory in lizards. Concentrated changes tests show that there is a significant association in Lacertidae, Lacertiformes, Lacertoidea, Scincidae, and Scleroglossa between insularity and omnivory. Insular lizards may broaden their diets to compensate for limited availability of prey. Addition of other factors that reduce availability of prey, i.e. extreme aridity and cave-dwelling, to insularity, strengthened the relationship to omnivory in Lacertidae and Lacertoidea. We were unable to demonstrate a role of aridity independent of insularity, but present anecdotal evidence suggests that it may promote evolution of plant consumption. Large body size in lizards has long been associated with herbivory, and more recently, with omnivory in lacertid lizards. Using a conventional regression approach in which each species is considered to supply an independent data point, this relationship was confirmed for all lizards. Although larger species have diets with more plants, plant consumption accounts for only 9% of the variation in body length, which is not surprising given that other factors such as predation, competition, and sexual selection affect body size. The frequency of transitions body size associated with transitions to ominivory or carnivory was also examined. In Iguania, Scleroglossa, and all lizards, transitions supporting the hypothesis that omnivory favours increase in body size were significantly more frequent than nonsupporting transitions. This suggests that substantial plant consumption favours evolution of larger size, probably because of the energetic considerations first presented by Pough (1973). Because actively foraging lizards move widely through the habitat to locate prey and tongue-flick to locate prey by chemical cues, we hypothesized that they may be more likely to evolve omnivory than ambush foragers, which wait motionless for prey and do not tongue-flick to locate or identify prey. The basis of this prediction is that the wider searching of active foragers predisposes them to contact with a greater variety and quantity of plants and that chemosensory tongue-flicking used by omnivores to identify plant food might be easier to evolve in active foragers that already use pre-chemical discrimination. The prediction is supported by a significantly greater per species frequency of origins of omnivory by active foragers than by ambushers. A scenario for the progressive evolution of omnivory and herbivory from ancestrally carnivorous lizards is discussed.

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The Mediterranean Sea, in particular along its northern coasts contains may archipelagos, islands, islets and rocks. Also along Spain and the north African and Levant coasts some islands are present. Most of these islands are inhabited by lacertid lizards, 39 species are known at present. Many of the species living on islands are also distributed on the mainland, while others are endemic (Algyroides fitzingeri, Lacerta bedriagae, Podarcis artratus, Podarcis filfolensis, Podarcis gaigae, Podarcis lilfordi, Podarcis milensis, Podarcis pityusensis, Podarcis raffonei, Podarcis tiliguerta, Podarcis waglerianus). There are also species introduced by man like Teira perspicillata onto Menorca. Insular populations are often restricted and due to their isolation status constantly under drought conditions. In the present paper some factors that could affect island populations are discussed. As lizards are good models to study insular ecosystems they deserve particular attention.

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The aim of the present study is to synthesise the available data on the occurrence of lacertid lizards on Mediterranean islands better to understand how far human influence is involved in the present distributional patterns of insular lacertid lizard fauna. At present, the Mediterranean islands are inhabited by several lacertid genera, including endemic species of the genera Algyroides (viz. fitzingeri), Lacerta [Archaeolacerta] (viz. bedriagae) and Podarcis (atratus, filfolensis, gaigae, lilfordi, milensis, pityusensis, raffonei, tiliguerta, waglerianus). Recently reported data shed new light on the relationships between these endemics and some continental species that have recently colonised the islands. The arrival of the latter might be directly related to the progressive human colonisation of these islands. The arising conservation problems are also considered.

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This work deals with a synthesis of data on the late Quaternary occurrence of endemic herpetofauna reported, shed new light on the permanence and extinction of autochthonous species and the arrival of continental ones. Their arrival might be directly related to the progressive advent of human colonisation of the islands, Hence, the question is how is the present insular herpetofauna connected to human intervention? In this review we show the close connection between human occupation of Mediterranean islands and present-day herpetofauna.

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In many species, secondary sexual characters increase male fitness, yet the same traits can be detrimental when expressed in females due to differences in selective pressures between the sexes. This sexually antagonistic selection may drive intralocus sexual conflict (ISC), in which genes that are beneficial when expressed in one sex are detrimental when expressed in the other. ISC is thought to drive the evolution of sexual dimorphism in these traits through the decoupling of the trait’s expression between the sexes. Nevertheless, in many species male-typical secondary sex traits are partially or fully expressed in females, and few studies have investigated the significance of such traits in natural populations. In the context of ISC, the present study investigates the significance of a male-typical secondary sexual character (conspicuous coloration) in a free-living female Ibiza Wall Lizards, Podarcis pityusensis, a species expressing striking color-diversity across its range and between the sexes. By manipulating lizard color, monitoring the effects of this manipulation on individuals’ behavior and reproductive success throughout the reproductive season, and measuring the heritability of color from parents to same and opposite-sex offspring, this study identifies sexually antagonistic selection which drived ISC over color expression in male and female lizards.

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Selection on the same trait may differ between the sexes and among age groups as a result of sex- and age-specific strategies in reproduction and survival. Antagonistic selective pressures on traits shared between the sexes can lead to intralocus sexual conflict, which occurs when selection favors the expression of particular alleles in one sex, but disfavors the expression of those same alleles in the opposite sex. Similarly, antagonistic selection on traits shared among age groups, can lead to intralocus ontogenetic conflict, which occurs when selection favors the expression of particular alleles in one age group, but disfavors the expression of those same alleles in another agegroup. These two forms of conflict may result in individuals that deviate from their unique, sex- and age-specific optimal phenotypes. Display characters such as conspicuous coloration, may provide a prime example of this conflict because, while the reproductive benefits of expressing these traits are usually only realized by one sex (usually males) and at reproductive maturity, many of the costs of expressing these traits occur in both sexes and at all ages. In the context of intralocus sexual and ontogentic conflict, this dissertation investigates color evolution in the Ibiza wall lizard, Podarcis pityusensis, a lizard species the exhibits striking between sexes and among age-group color variation.

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The Ibiza wall lizard is the symbol of the Pityusic-Archipelago, but what makes this colorful reptile so special? The Symbol: wall lizards of Ibiza and Formentera will take you on a journey into the culture, biology, ecology, and conservation of Ibiza and Formentera’s most iconic animal.

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Comparative analyses were carried out about the variability of the pileal shields of different species belonging to the family Lacertidae. The results of the comparisons have been evaluated in respect to the phylogenetical relationships existing between the different genera and species of the family.

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Background. The western Mediterranean archipelagos have a rich endemic fauna, which includes five species of reptiles. Most of these archipelagos were colonized since early historic times by anthropochoric fauna, such as ship rats (Rattus rattus). Here, I evaluated the influence of ship rats on the occurrence of island reptiles, including non-endemic species. Methodology. I analysed a presence-absence database encompassing 159 islands (Balearic Islands, Provence Islands, Corso-Sardinian Islands, Tuscan Archipelago, and Galite) using Bayesian-regularized logistic regression. Results. The analysis indicated that ship rats do not influence the occurrence of endemic island reptiles, even on small islands. Moreover, Rattus rattus co-occurred positively with two species of non-endemic reptiles, including a nocturnal gecko, a guild considered particularly vulnerable to predation by rats. Overall, the analyses showed a very different pattern than that documented in other regions of the globe, possibly attributable to a long history of coexistence.

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Mediterranean islands have complex reptile assemblages, but little is known about the factors that determine their organization. In this study, the structure of as-semblages of Squamata was evaluated based on their species richness and two measures of phylogenetic diversity (variability and clustering). I evaluated the com-position of the assemblages comparing distinct biogeographic subregions within the Mediterranean: Adriatic, Aegean, Balearic, Corsica–Sardinia, Crete, Gulf of Gabés, Ionian Sea, Ligurian Sea, Malta, Sicily, and Tyrrhenian Sea. The effect of island en-vironments and geographical isolation on the diversity metrics was assessed using generalized linear models. The analyses indicated that species richness was mostly influenced by island area and geographical isolation. Assemblages on smaller islands were poorer in species and phylogenetically dispersed, possibly as an effect of inter-specific competition. The species composition of the assemblages was determined by similar environmental drivers within the biogeographic subregions, including is-land area, island elevation, geographical isolation, and aridity. In several subregions, significant patterns of phylogenetic attraction were found in species co-occurrences, caused by the limits imposed by the island size on large predatory species

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Background Lizards of the genus Podarcis are widespread in the Mediterranean region, including islands and island archipelagos. These small-bodied lizards have a predominantly protective green-brown colouration. However, some populations display unusual patterns, in which the colouration is predominantly blue or uniformly black. This study explores the factors that influence this chromatic variation, whether environmental (climate and island conditions) or evolutionary (phylogenetic trait conservatism). The colouration of 1400 individuals (27 species) was analysed in the CIELAB colour space. Results Pagel’s λ indicated that colouration is weakly conserved within phylogenetic lineages. Although the island surface plays a key role in the chromatic variability of these lacertids, geographic isolation and climate hold less influence. The colouration of some small island populations tends to be uniform and dark, possibly due to intense intraspecific competition and lower predatory pressure. Conclusions This study highlights the importance of island populations in understanding the processes that favour the emergence of extreme phenotypes in small ectothermic vertebrates.

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En las últimas décadas se han introducido tres especies de serpientes en las Islas Baleares a través del comercio de viveros desde la Península Ibérica, su área de distribución nativa. La culebra de escalera Zamenis scalaris fue citada por primera vez en 2006 en Formentera, la culebra de herradura Hemorrhois hippocrepis en 2003 en Ibiza y la culebra bastarda Malpolon monspessulanus en 2006 en Mallorca. Actualmente, cualquier especie de la familia Colubridae que habita en Ibiza y Formentera es considerada legalmente invasora. Desde 2016, en estas dos islas se llevan a cabo campañas de control y erradicación mediante trampas cebadas con ratones vivos. Por el contrario, las especies de serpientes exóticas que habitan en Mallorca no son consideradas legalmente invasoras. En este caso, campañas de control y erradicación a pequeña escala se iniciaron en Mallorca en 2017. En el presente trabajo se resumen los estudios realizados en relación con la monitorización e impacto de estas especies en las islas de Ibiza, Formentera y Mallorca. Los resultados sugieren que el proceso de invasión se ha completado con éxito para H. hippocrepis y Z. scalaris, ya que ambas especies están bien establecidas en Ibiza y Formentera, respectivamente. La combinación de introducciones múltiples, un potencial reproductivo elevado, la gran plasticidad trófica y su adaptación climática habrían contribuido al proceso de invasión. En cuanto a M. monspessulanus, aún no se ha descrito su completa expansión en Mallorca aunque se ha comprobado su naturalización. Sin embargo, rasgos como la eurifagia y la capacidad adaptación a ecosistemas alterados, sugieren una muy probable expansión por toda la isla en el futuro. Entre los impactos se han detectado respuestas antidepredatorias comportamentales y fisiológicas de la salamanquesa común Tarentola mauritanica expuesta al olor de H. hippocrepis, hecho que evidenció que reconoce las señales químicas de la culebra de herradura. La legislación actual se ha mostrado ineficaz en cuanto a la prevención y la aplicación de protocolos de rápida actuación contra estas especies. Sin embargo, se cree que la fuerte presión de captura desde 2016 ha provocado una disminución de las densidades de población, especialmente de Z. scalaris en Formentera. El presente trabajo sugiere propuestas adicionales para gestionar las poblaciones de serpientes establecidas en las Islas Baleares y también para prevenir futuras introducciones tanto de éstas como de otras especies.

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We provide a fi rst complete list of the present and lost reptile type material of the Zoologische Staatssammlung München (ZSM) and discuss various problems involved. The collection currently houses primary types of 184 taxa (128 holotypes, 44 lectotypes, and 12 taxa based on syntype series), 112 of them currently considered valid. Furthermore, 63 taxa are exclusively represented by secondary types (paratypes, paralectotypes). The ZSM collection strongly suffered from losses during World War II. Approximately 90 primary reptile type specimens or primary type series are considered to be destroyed during that time. The historical focus of the collection is the South American region. This is primarily based on material collected by Spix and Martius during their expedition to Brazil from 1817 to 1820. Primary types of 83 reptile taxa were collected during this expedition – approximately half of them described by J. G. Wagler – but currently specimens of only 53 taxa are still present in Munich. Subsequently, herpetological research in South America was continued during the fi rst half of the 20th Century by L. Müller und W. Hellmich, who deposited primary type material of 95 reptile taxa (49 from South America, among them 26 of the iguanid genus Liolaemus) in the ZSM, 47 of them still represented by primary types. Another geographical focus of the reptile type collection is the Mediterranean area, the Macaronesian region and the Middle East with a total of 46 extant primary types. Herpetological research in this area dates back to descriptions by G. Jan in 1863 and was continued by L. Müller, H. H. Schleich, A. Beutler, and especially J. F. Schmidtler and their respective collaborators.

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The presence of a recently introduced population of Podarcis p. pityusensis (BOSCA, 1883) at Cala Ratjada, NE Mallorca, is reported.

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Climatic conditions changing over time and space shape the evolution of organisms at multiple levels, including temperate lizards in the family Lacertidae. Here we reconstruct a dated phylogenetic tree of 262 lacertid species based on a supermatrix relying on novel phylogenomic datasets and fossil calibrations. Diversification of lacertids was accompanied by an increasing disparity among occupied bioclimatic niches, especially in the last 10 Ma, during a period of progressive global cooling. Temperate species also underwent a genome- wide slowdown in molecular substitution rates compared to tropical and desert-adapted lacertids. Evaporative water loss and preferred temperature are correlated with bioclimatic parameters, indicating physiological adaptations to climate. Tropical, but also some popu- lations of cool-adapted species experience maximum temperatures close to their preferred temperatures. We hypothesize these species-specific physiological preferences may con- stitute a handicap to prevail under rapid global warming, and contribute to explaining local lizard extinctions in cool and humid climates.

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Description of the introduced population of Podarcis pityusensis in San Juan de Gaztelugatxe, compared to earlier description as Podarcis sicula (also introduced on the Cantabric coast) and autochthonous Podarcis hispanica and Podarcis muralis.

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The Ibiza wall lizard, Podarcis pityusensis (Boscá, 1883), is an introduced species in the Rock of Gaztelugatxe (Bizkaia, Northern Spain), which in less than 20 years has completely displacing the native species, the common wall lizard, P. muralis (Laurenti, 1768). Since 2008, we are conducting campaigns to control the introduced Ibiza wall lizard population. In 2008 we captured an adult male who had multiple kyphosis in the spine column, diagnosed by high resolution x-ray. The case presented in this note would be the first known for an European lizard of genus Podarcis.

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From childhood to adulthood we receive a lot of information on animal key species with a high charismatic value. Flagships species are also frequently used to raise awareness, stimulate conservation and to increase political support for conservation issues. Since flagship species do not, in many cases, represent the local ecological community, there is the risk that exotic species are more readily identified than local ones and this could be problematic, as knowledge is critical to promote conservation. Conservation is especially crucial on islands, where populations may be more prone to extinctions than in the mainland, and where isolation may favor endemism. To test the hypothesis that exotic species are better known than local ones, we surveyed high school children in the Balearic Islands, a biodiversity hot spot for conservation priorities. We quantified children’s knowledge of native and exotic vertebrate groups by using a computer-aided multiple choices questionnaire. We found that exotic species are better known than local fauna, even when local fauna is broadly common or of greater conservation concern. We also found strong differences in knowledge between different vertebrate groups: the best known were mammals whereas fishes were the least known. Surprisingly, even if less known than mammals, local amphibians and reptiles were better known than exotic ones. Children’s poor knowledge on the local fauna in relation to other exotic vertebrates may lead them to associate wildlife and its conservation with exotic species. We suggest increasing efforts on environmental education and focussing on direct experience of children in their local environment to increase their knowledge of the local fauna, and engage their interest in their own natural world.

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The phenomenon of the formation of more than one tail in lizards and its causes are addressed. The lizard with the maximum number of degenerate tails at present is pointed out. In the following, a male Podarcis pityusensis pityusensis with two tails is reported. Finally, the lack of regenerative capacity in very old lizards is proven on the basis of own experience.

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In diesem Naturführer werden auf über 100 Farbfotos alle mitteleuroipäischen Arten und darüber hinaus auch süd- und osteuropäische vorgestellt: Frösche, Kröten, Molche und Salamander, Schildkröten, Echsen und Schlangen. Fachkundige Texte informirern über Kennzeichen, Vorkommrn, Verhalten, Fortpflanzung, Ernährung und Besonderheiten. Der bewährte Kosmos-Farbcode teilt die Amphibien und Reptilien nach ihrer Verwandtschaft in 5 Gruppen ein und erleichtert so die Bestimmung. Die praktischen Klappen bieten interessante Zusatzinformationen über Froschlurchentwicklung, Laichformen und anatomischen Besonderheiten bei Reptilien.

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An electrophoretic comparison of ten colonies of Podarcis pityusensis Bosca, 1882 (Lacertidae) from Ibiza, Formentera and neighbouring islets (Balearic Is., Spain). 71 animals from ten colonies (vide list in text) of the Ibiza wall lizard Podarcis pi- tyusensis Bosca, 1882 were analysed by electrophoresis, on 12 % starch gel, and 16 gene- tic loci were studied, by checking against samples of Podarcis muralis muralis. The genetic frequency resulting in NEI`s identity index (I), reveals no clear differen- ces between the various colonies. However, itcan be seen on the resultant dendogram that P. p. carlkochi (affinis group) is distinct from the pityusensis sensu stricto group colonies. By other means we found characteristic allels for Podarcis pityusensis in four loci: GOT-1, IDM-1, G-6-PD-2 and 6-PGD, which differed from Podarcis muralis allels.

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Residual yolk is assumed to be an important source of energy and nutrients during early life in nonmammalian amniotes. Available data show that the mean size of residual yolk is far smaller in lizards than in turtles, snakes, crocodiles, and birds, raising a question of whether residual yolk is of functional significance in lizards. Here, we compared data from 26 lizard species with those from other nonmammalian amniotes to test the hypothesis that residual yolk is functionally less significant in species producing more fully developed offspring. In our sample, species mean offspring water contents ranged from 73% to 84% of body wet mass; species mean proportions of carcass dry mass, fat-body dry mass, and residual yolk dry mass to offspring dry mass ranged from 84% to 99%, 0% to 5.0%, and 0% to 14.4%, respectively. Lizards are, on average, more fully developed at hatching or birth than snakes, as revealed by the fact that the mean proportion of carcass dry mass to body dry mass and offspring water contents were both higher in lizards than in snakes. We conclude that the functional significance of residual yolk during early life is generally less evident in lizards. Even in the lizards where residual yolk is of potential functional significance, this portion of yolk contributes little, if any, to postembryonic growth. Future work could usefully collect data across a wider spectrum of reptile taxa to establish a precocial–altricial continuum and test the hypothesis that species with a smaller amount of residual yolk are closer to the precocial end of the continuum.

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In recent years there has been an exponential increase in the amount of published DNA sequences, as it has become one of the most popular sources of data for reconstructing phylogenies. A number of studies have attempted to resolve the relationships of groups of lacertids using mitochondrial DNA sequence data, in particular Podarcis and Gallotia (e.g. THORPE et al., 1994; 1996; GONZALEZ et al., 1996; FU et al., 1997; HARRIS, 1997; HARRIS et al., 1998a; 1999; CASTILLA et al., 1999a,b). Reassessment of these data suggest some alternative phylogenies to those previously published, and also highlight possible problems. Two studies have attempted to unravel the phylogeny of the whole family using mitochondrial DNA sequences (FU, 1998; HARRIS et al., 1998b). By combining these essentially congruent data sets, and reanalysing levels of support for the phylogenies produced, a more complete estimate of relationships across the family is produced. This is then compared to alternative sources of evidence, primarily morphological (ARNOLD, 1989), biochemical (MAYER & BENYR, 1994) and karyological (OLMO et al., 1993). Reasons for discrepencies are discussed, as are the relative advantages and disadvantages of the different sources of phylogenetic inference.

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DNA sequences from parts of the 12S, 16S and cytochrome b mitochondrial genes, which totalled 1049 aligned base pairs, were used to estimate the relationships of 49 species of Lacertidae, including representatives of 19 out of the 23 recognized genera and 23 species of the paraphyletic genus Lacerta. These data were used, together with morphological information, to estimate the relationships within the family. Molecular evidence corroborates the monophyletic status of many genera and species groups originally based on morphology. It indicates that Psammodromus forms a clade with Gallotia, which is the sister taxon of all other lacertids. These comprise three units: the primarily Afrotropical armatured group; the largely Oriental Takydromus; and the west Palaearctic Lacerta and its derivatives, Podarcis and Algyroides. Morphology also supports the first three assemblages, but suggests that they are derived from a paraphyletic Lacerta. Within Lacerta and its allies, DNA sequence analysis corroborates the affinity of some members of each of the subgenera Lacerta s. str. and Timon, and of the L. saxicola group. It also supports the relationship of L. monticola, L. bonnali and L. horvathi, and suggests that the L. parva–L. fraasi clade and L. brandti are not related to Psammodromus–Gallotia, as morphology indicates, but instead are associated respectively with the L. danfordi and L. saxicola groups. DNA sequence data provide additional evidence that the eastern Arabian `Lacerta` jayakari and `L.` cyanura are members of the armatured clade and also sister species. Our analysis supports an origin for present lacertids in west Eurasia. The armatured clade invaded Africa, probably in the mid-Miocene, spreading widely and evolving increasingly xeric-adapted forms, one lineage of which later moved back into the Palaearctic. `Lacerta` jayakari and `L.` cyanura are assigned to Omanosaura, Lutz and Mayer 1986. The name Gallotiinae Cano, Baez, Lopez-Jurado and Ortega, 1984 is available for the Gallotia–Psammodromus clade, Eremiainae Shcherbak 1975 for the armatured clade and Lacertinae for Lacerta, Podarcis and Algyroides. Two new subgenera of Lacerta are proposed here: Caucasilacerta for L. saxicola and its allies, and Parvilacerta for L. parva and L. fraasi.

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Conclusions Podarcis tiliguerta appears to be a species complex. Further morphological and molecular analyses will be needed to confirm this. Podarcis sicula is not sister taxon to P. muralis, nor is P. wagleriana a genetic lineage within P. filfolensis as has been previously suggested. However relationships between most Podarcis species remain unresolved.

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Brief description of a female Podarcis pityusenis pityusensis with a forked tail regeneration.

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While on vacation in Puerto San Miguel in the north of Ibiza the little island Murada was visited and the endemic lizard Podarcis pityusensis muradae was observed and photographed in the habitat.

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Invasive species currently account for a major threat to global biodiversity, and island ecosystems are among the most vulnerable, because of the frequency and success of species introductions on islands. Within Mediterranean islands, reptiles not only are frequently introduced species but are also among the most threatened because of these introductions. The Balearic archipelago is a good example of this, since only two of its current 16 species of reptiles are native. Thirteen years ago, the snake Hemorrhois hippocrepis was introduced by cargo in Ibiza island, and it is in expansion. Individuals obtained from an early eradication campaign showed a fast expression of phenotypic plasticity and acquired larger sizes than those of the source population, probably due to a high prey availability and predator scarcity. The species is thriving at the expense of a small variety of native and non-native prey, but the predation pressure on the endemic Podarcis pityusensis, the only native reptile in the island, is very high, as this lizard represents 56% of the prey in frequency, which might threaten its survival on the long term. Our results on the feeding ecology of the snake are of sufficient concern to justify the maintenance of actions to eradicate this invader.

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The early detection of invasive reptiles, before they become established and widespread, is critical to increase our chances of full eradication. Here I present, some proven and effective tools to use with that effort at a low cost financially. Spain alone has over 41,179 citizen naturalists that have contributed 1,873,000 observation data points in Spain. And this number is rising daily! We will discuss ways to engage these naturalists, to the fullest extent, in hopes of getting a jump on any new invasives that show up. I will also discuss tools and tactics to follow up on any early detections, in order to fully survey these areas effectively and efficiently at a minimal cost, for years following the original detection. Having the general public help with eradication/containment efforts has proven to be successful, and here we take a deeper dive into maximizing the efforts of citizen naturalists. Once a new invasive species is detected, effective field tactics are required to survey the area to understand the extent of invasion, and I will go into those methods in great detail.

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Pharyngodon medinae García-Calvente, 1948 (Nematoda: Pharyngodonidae) is redescribed from Podarcis pityusensis (Bosca, 1883) (Sauria: Lacertidae) of the Balearic Islands (Spain) and confirmed as a member of the genus Skrjabinodon Inglis, 1968. A systematic review of S. medinae and closely related species is also given. Parathelandros canariensis is referred to Skrjabinodon as a new combination and Parathelandros Magzoub et al., 1980 is dismissed as a junior homonym of Parathelandros Baylis, 1930.

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Environmental sex determination has been documented in a variety of organisms for many decades and the adaptive significance of this unusual sexdetermining mechanism has been clarified empirically in most cases. In contrast, temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) in amniote vertebrates, first noted 40 years ago in a lizard, has defied a general satisfactory evolutionary explanation despite considerable research effort. After briefly reviewing relevant theory and prior empirical work, we draw attention to recent comparative analyses that illuminate the evolutionary history of TSD in amniote vertebrates and point to clear avenues for future research on this challenging topic. To that end, we then highlight the latest empirical findings in lizards and turtles, as well as promising experimental results from a model organism, that portend an exciting future of progress in finally elucidating the evolutionary cause(s) and significance of TSD.

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Dans cette note on étudie les squamates du Pliocene, Pléistocene et Holo- cene des Baléares. Mallorca et Menorca ont été envahies vraisemblemblement pendant le Miocene supérieur par uné espece du genre Lacerta. Mallorca pendant le passage Plio-Pléis- tocene est peuplée par une population de lézards qui anoncent déja l`espece actuelle (Lacer- ta (Pordareis) afi. lilfordi). Les gisements du Pléistocene supérieur et de I`Holocene ont li- vré restes de l`espece vivante Lacerta (Podareis) lilfordi qui est disparue actuellement de cette ile et aussi de Menorca (oú on a trouvé aussi des restes holocenes de la meme espece) et occupe seulement des ilots aux voisinages de deux iles majeures. La population holocene de la Cova de Muleta (Mallorca) présente des particularités (taille plus robuste, nombre des dents plus élevé soit sur le maxillaire soit sur le dentaire) qui permettent sa séparation au niveau subspécifique, Lacerta (Pordacis) lilfordi muletensis ssp. n. Quelques rares restes du Pléistocene inférieur de Menorca sont classifiés comme Lacerta (Podareis) sp. La disparition de Lacerta lilfordi de Mallorca et Menorca est due probablement a l`introduction de ser- pents dans les iles de la part de l`homme. Enfin un stock des lézards baléariques a envahi probablement pendant le Pliocene ou le Pléistocene, Eivissa et les ilots voisins et a donné naissance a Lacerta (Pordacis) pityusensis.

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Color patterns of adult and juvenile Podarcis pityusensis maluquerorum are described. Keeping and breeding of this lizard species is reported.

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At the end of November, Podarcis pityusensis could be observed on Ibiza and Formentera only at places protected from the wind, when the sun was shining and the air warmed up to 20 to 25°C.

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The population of Illiot de Sa Mesquida: Podarcis pityusensis characae (Buchholz 1954) is regarded as a synonym of Podarcis pityusensis pityusensis (Boscá 1883).

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Observations on Podarcis pityusensis consuming herbivorous food on Eivissa and the surrounding islands are summarized and compared with the existing literature. The advantages of a herbivorous diet on small islands is briefly discussed.

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The distribution and the ratios between noradrenaline (NA) and adrenaline (A) cells in eight species belonging to the family Lacertidae were studied. There are variations in the distribution of the two cell types within the gland and a wide range of variation in the NA/A cell ratio. Comparing their data with palaeontological, anatomical and biochemical evidence, the authors are inclined to consider G. galloti and L. graeca as the most ancient lizards among those studied and to ascribe L. graeca to the group Lacerta part II together with L. dugesii. P. pityusensis should also be ascribed to the same group on the basis of the result, of this study. The other four species studied (L. lepida, L. trilineata, L. viridis and L. schreiberi) appear to be of fairly recent origin and should be ascribed to the group Lacerta part I, on the basis of the homogeneous distribution of the chromaffin cells inside the adrenal gland and their low NA/A cell ratios.

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Invasive predators wreak havoc on island ecosystems worldwide. The impact of these invasions is particularly strong when they decimate predator naïve mesopredators, which often play key roles for ecosystem functioning. Our previous research has provided evidence that behavior determines survival of mesopredators exposed to novel predators. It is still not well understood, however, if behavior is a crucial factor determining the success of animal populations coping with invasive predators. In our research laboratory we are currently addressing this question taking advantage of a natural experiment in the Mediterranean. In Ibiza, an endemic keystone mesopredator, the iconic Ibiza wall lizard, is being rapidly decimated by a rapidly spreading predatory whiptail snake. By combining field and lab experiments with cuttingedge molecular tools we are trying to decipher the evolutionary dynamics of the behavior of both native mesopredators and invasive top predators. In addition, we examine whether and how these behavioral shifts alter ecological interactions and modify ecosystem functioning. In this talk, I will provide an overview on the work my research lab is currently carrying out in Ibiza. Our integrative approach includes studying potential adaptive change in the behavior, morphology of endemic lizards as well as potential phenotypic shifts of their rapidly spreading predators. Importantly, we are also investigating if the reduction of number and even total extirpation of keystone lizards is having an impact through cascading consequences for other organisms (both animals and plants) at the level of the entire biological community across the island. In addition. Finally, I will also present our empirical work testing the hypothesis that urban areas might be acting as refuges for populations of this endemic lizard and introduce planned work for genomics. Our integrative understanding of the dynamics of animal behavior from genes to ecosystems should transcend this study system and significantly contribute to the conservation of island ecosystems worldwide. We hope our work will promote wellinformed, effective, management strategies for biodiversity conservation of this delicate Mediterranean ecosystems but also for other threatened island ecosystems worldwide.

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546 lizards of different geographically isolated populations of the specus Lacerta pityusensis were studied using an systematic criteria correlative and allometric changes of body proportions, coloration and pattern. Some other criteria often used in systematic studies on southern European lizards were unsuitable, since they do not differ significantly between the populations. With the exception of the Trocados (Trocardors) lizard (L. p. grueni) all adults of the populations on the seperate offshore islands increase their body size, in particular L. p. grossae on St. Eulalia (Illa de Santa Eulalia) and L. p. maluquerorum on Bleda Nebosque Island (Na Bosc). The studies on correlative and allometric changes of body proportions showed: All criteria show a marked sexual dimorphism, the males are larger and have longer pilei and hindlimbs. The allometric changes in length of pileus / width of pileus were found to be possitive in males however negativ in females in all populations except the N-Formentera lizards. The females of the geographically isolated populations differ more between each other and in comparison with Ibiza females than do males. Lizards of the island populations have more slender pilei than Ibiza lizards. The females have longer hindlimbs but in some populations the hindlimbs of the males show a more negative allometric growth. Smaller adult males of these populations have longer while larger males have shorter hindlimbs than the Ibiza lizards. The studies of coloration and pattern showed that in particular the populations of the east coast of Ibiza differ from those given in other studies. In the population of L. p. grossae on St. Eulalia (Illa de Santa Eulalia) grey green individuals without a red belly are found, in the population of L. p. canensis on Es Cana Island (Caná) are some light green lizards. The females of L. p. redonae (Redonda de Santa Eulalia) and L. p. canensis (Caná) were described the first time. The population on east coast islands show no tendency to darker coloration. The populations longest isolated display the most brightest colours. L. p. grueni inhabits the peninsula (not island) Trocados (Trocadors). This subspecies is distributed over the extreme north of Formentera and in the south of it`s range hybridisation with the subspecies L. p. formenterae occurs. The lizards of playa La Sabina, N-Formentera and some related offshore islands are with regard to all criteria intermediate to the lizards of Ibiza and the remaining Formentera. The subspecies L. p. algae (Pouet), subformenterae (Conejo de Formentera) and sabinae (Sabina), described from that region, are considered as synoyms of L. p. pityusensis as well as L. p. formenterae. Since the lizards of the Islas de Purroige (Ses Illetes de Purroig) differ hardly from the lizards of Ibiza, this subspecies (L. p. purroigensis) is considered a synonym of L. p. pityusensis. Lacerta p. zenonis from the tiny island Escui de Esparto (Escull de S`Espartar) probably does not differ from L. p. kameriana from the island of Esparto (Espartar). In future, the ecology, structure and size of the isolated lizard populations shall be studied and compared. It is suggested that the single island represent different eco-systems. An analysis shall be done on those parameters which maintain natural selection and are thus most imortant for the evolution of the lizards. It is considered that the social behaviour is of relevance to population dispersion and density and the regulation of population size.

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Gold-toned bipyramidal neurons of the dorsomedial cortex of Lacerta have been studied using light and electron microscopy. The spines have been classified as stubby, mushroom-shaped or thin. Thin and mushroomshaped spines are only found on proximal and intermediate dendritic segments, whereas stubby spines are found on distal dendritic segments. A Timm`s method modification for electron microscopy (sulphide-osmium procedure) has been used. Timm-positive axonal endings usually synapse on thin and mushroomshaped spines, whereas Timm-negative axonal endings usually synapse on stubby spines. Timm-positive afferents and their post-synaptic spines on bipyramidal neurons of Lacerta`s dorsomedial cortex are compared with the corresponding elements on pyramidal neurons of the CA3 region of the hippocampus of mammals, on the basis of several histochemical and morphological studies. The possibility that these two neuronal types may be homologous is discussed.

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The status of the populations of Podarcis pityusensis on about 70 islets and small islands around Ibiza and Formentera (Balearic Islands) is examined, using data from our own observations, and, to a lesser amount, other publications. Lizard populations were found on 43 islets, but data are lacking for another 13. Only 10 sites (18 %) have abundant and well-maintained populations. In 13 localities (23%), there is no geographic isolation between the populations, or this isolation is very poor and incomplete. The high probability of populations mixing, or actual observation of this mixing, in 19 islands (34%) is indicated. Human pressure on lizard populations is strong in 14 cases (25 %). And finally, 18 populations (about one third) may be considered highly endangered or already extinct by elimination or genetic mixing with other populations. Among the subspecies which became extinct through mixing are P.p. miguelensis, P.p. subformenterae, P.p. algae, P.p. sabinae and P.p. grueni. The need for adequate protective measures aimed at the conservation of the remaining populations is emphasized.

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The arrival to the Balearic Islands of new species proceeding from the Iberian Peninsula and other peri-mediterrnean regions supposes a potential threat for the survival of the two endemic lacertids. The accession and rapid expansion of Hemorrhois hippocrepis and Rhinechis scalaris in Ibiza, an island without snakes until a few years ago, might already be affecting the populations of Podarcis pytiusensis. The populations of Podarcis lilfordi on Cabrera and the other islets sur- rounding Majorca might equally in turn be affected by Podarcis siculus, another lacertid species recently introduced in Mallorca.

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Available data regarding conservation status of lizard populations from Balearic Islands, as well as threat factors affecting them are presented. Some populations are highly threatened, due to their intrinsic limitation of island surface occupied and, in addition, there are cases of viable artificial populations. Hence, we propose the translocation of most threatened populations to islets today unoccupied by lizards. We show the critria under which such operation could be performed.

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A very small population (five lizards in 1998), product of the hybridization of P. p. maluquerorum and P. p. pityusensis, released by M. Eisentraut in 1930 survives in Dau Gran islet (Ibiza, Balearic Islands). The study of hybrids collected in 1935 and three present day specimens (two males and one female) allow to verify a tendency towards an increase in body size and a darker coloration of lizards. We consider that cannibalism is one of the principal selective factors in these extreme conditions that implie relatively quick evolutionary changes. This population can be representative of other populations also living in small islets with limited resources.

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Endemic lizards from Balearic Islands, Podarcis pityusensis and P. lilfordi, are subjected to legal protection and effective conservation measures in recent decades. Since Martínez-Rica and Cirer (1982) –a paper devoted to the pityusic species, but that would be generalized-, the situation has changed considerably. In this communication, we consider the current legal situation, the habitats what are covered by protected areas (natural parks and reserves), and the factors of threat sug- gested recently. Finally, we enumerate the priorities in the future management of both species -according to the authors-, and which stocks would be those of preferential attention.

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Aim Body size is instrumental in influencing animal physiology, morphology, ecology and evolution, as well as extinction risk. I examine several hypotheses regarding the influence of body size on lizard evolution and extinction risk, assessing whether body size influences, or is influenced by, species richness, herbivory, island dwelling and extinction risk. Location World-wide. Methods I used literature data and measurements of museum and live specimens to estimate lizard body size distributions. Results I obtained body size data for 99% of the world`s lizard species. The body size–frequency distribution is highly modal and right skewed and similar distributions characterize most lizard families and lizard assemblages across biogeographical realms. There is a strong negative correlation between mean body size within families and species richness. Herbivorous lizards are larger than omnivorous and carnivorous ones, and aquatic lizards are larger than non-aquatic species. Diurnal activity is associated with small body size. Insular lizards tend towards both extremes of the size spectrum. Extinction risk increases with body size of species for which risk has been assessed. Main conclusions Small size seems to promote fast diversification of disparate body plans. The absence of mammalian predators allows insular lizards to attain larger body sizes by means of release from predation and allows them to evolve into the top predator niche. Island living also promotes a high frequency of herbivory, which is also associated with large size. Aquatic and nocturnal lizards probably evolve large size because of thermal constraints. The association between large size and high extinction risk, however, probably reflects a bias in the species in which risk has been studied.

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Aim Temperature influences most components of animal ecology and life history – but what kind of temperature? Physiologists usually examine the influence of body temperatures, while biogeographers and macroecologists tend to focus on environmental temperatures. We aim to examine the relationship between these two measures, to determine the factors that affect lizard body temperatures and to test the effect of both temperature measures on lizard life history. Location World-wide. Methods We used a large (861 species) global dataset of lizard body temperatures, and the mean annual temperatures across their geographic ranges to examine the relationships between body and mean annual temperatures.We then examined factors influencing body temperatures, and tested for the influence of both on ecological and life-history traits while accounting for the influence of shared ancestry. Results Body temperatures and mean annual temperatures are uncorrelated. However, accounting for activity time (nocturnal species have low body temperatures), use of space (fossorial and semi-aquatic species are ‘colder’), insularity (mainland species are ‘hotter’) and phylogeny, the two temperatures are positively correlated. High body temperatures are only associated with larger hatchlings and increased rates of biomass production. Annual temperatures are positively correlated with clutch frequency and annual longevity, and negatively correlated with clutch size, age at first reproduction and longevity. Main conclusions Lizards with low body temperatures do not seem to have ‘slower’ life-history attributes than species with high body temperatures. The longer seasons prevalent in warm regions, and physiological processes that operate while lizards are inactive (but warm enough), make environmental temperatures better predictors of lizard life-history variation than body temperatures. This surprisingly greater effect of environmental temperatures on lizard life histories hints that global warming may have a profound influence on lizard ecology and evolution.

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Alien predators may impose a great threat to naïve preys. Podarcis pityusensis lizards live in Ibiza, a snake-free island until 2003. We studied lizards’ discrimination of scents of two invader snakes: one that predates on lizards, Hemorrhois hippocrepis, and another that does not, Rhinechis scalaris. We compared two populations of P. pityusensis: one from the main island of Ibiza, which coexists with both snakes, and another from the close snake-free islet of Sal Rossa. Lizards from Ibiza recognized the scent of H. hippocrepis and responded with clear antipredator behaviours. However, they reacted to the scent of R. scalaris similarly than to the odorless and the pungent controls. Lizards from Sal Rossa did not recognize any snake species. Thus, lizards can rapidly acquire the ability to react to a totally novel type of predator. There are two possible explanations: (1) rapid evolution of antipredator behavior, and (2) the ability of lizards to learn how to avoid new predators. There have been few generations of lizards since the introduction of snakes, so it would be very fast for evolution to fix antipredator behaviours, although not impossible. Hence, we suggest that these lizards have learnt how to recognize this novel type of predator.

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Conclusión Más allá de la explicación de la distribución de las áreas relevantes de biodiversidad, donde intervienen procesos ecológicos y evolutivos, creemos que estudios como éste pueden ayudar a la identificación de zonas del territorio especialmente valiosas para la conservación de la biodiversidad. En lugares donde no existe tiempo ni recursos económicos para llevar a cabo análisis exhaustivos de la biodiversidad, sugerimos que una estrategia basada en el criterio del índice combinado puede proveer la adecuada protección para muchos grupos de organismos. La coincidencia entre áreas relevantes de diversidad de anfibios y reptiles y la red de ENPs en España peninsular y Baleares deja unos huecos que deben ser corregidos. Los mapas producidos constituyen una herramienta valiosa para el establecimiento de nuevos espacios protegidos, prevención del impacto ambiental y restauración de ecosistemas.

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Knowing the causes of biological invasion success can be relevant to combat future invasive processes. The recent invasion of the horseshoe whip snake Hemorrhois hippocrepis on the island of Ibiza provides the opportunity to compare natural history traits between invasive and source populations, and to unravel what makes this snake a successful invader that is threatening the only endemic vertebrate of the island, Podarcis pityusensis. This study compares the basic reproductive traits of mainland native and invasive populations of the snake. Our results revealed that invasive populations were characterized by female maturity at a smaller size, extended reproductive period, and much lower reproduction frequency compared to the native population. In contrast, some major reproductive traits-the abdominal fat body cycle, clutch size, hatchling body size, and hatchling body condition, did not differ between the two populations. Some of these results must reflect the environmental differences in the recently invaded island with respect to the source area, and overall plasticity of reproductive traits. Plasticity is evolutionarily interesting, and may aid the successful growth of this species in their invasiveness of Mediterranean islands like Ibiza. The most significant finding is that this expression of phenotypic plasticity occurred rapidly in this invasive population, within a period of 14 years maximum. Our results on the reproduction ecology of the invasive population were not conclusive regarding the factors determining the invasiveness of the snake and pointed to alternative causes.

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The invasive snake Hemorrhois hippocrepis colonized the island of Ibiza (Balearic Islands) in 2003 as stowaways inside trunks of olive trees imported for gardening. It has quickly spread since 2010, posing a threat to the island’s only remaining endemic vertebrate, the Ibiza wall lizard Podarcis pityusensis. We map the yearly expansion rate of the snake and estimate via transect surveys how severely it affects the distribution and abundance of the endemic lizard. As well, we surveyed nine of 30 small lizard populations on islets surrounding Ibiza that have been isolated since the Last Glacial Maximum. Snakes had invaded 49% of Ibiza’s land area by 2018, and censuses show a critical contrast in lizard abundance between areas with and without snakes; almost all censuses in areas without snakes show lizard presence whereas nearly all censuses in areas with H. hippocrepis lack lizard sightings. Moreover, at least one subspecies previously thriving on one of the offshore islets has become extinct, and there have been several snakes recorded swimming between Ibiza and the surrounding islets. Therefore, lizard populations have been dramatically reduced or have vanished within the range of the snake, and our results quantitatively support upgrading this species’ threat level for extinction. This study can inform to programs to manage invasive snake populations and to conservation actions to recover the endemic lizard.

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Fifteen years have elapsed since the arrival of the invasive snake Hemorrhois hippocrepis to the island of Ibiza (Balearic Islands, Spain). In that time, the only endemic vertebrate, the Ibiza Wall Lizard (Podarcis pityusensis), has disappeared across half of the island, a subspecies restricted to an offshore islet has vanished, and its extinction in its native range is likely to happen in the next several years if managers do not implement conservation measures with alacrity and decisiveness. In light of these fndings, our re-assessment of the IUCN extinction risk category for this lizard shows that its risk status has increased by two levels since its last assessment in 2008, from Near Threatened to Endangered. We also classify this snake as producing a Massive (MA) impact under the Environmental Impact Classifcation for Alien Taxa. Lastly, we suggest six management measures to prevent the extinction of the majority of genetic and taxonomic diversity of this lizard on Ibiza, Formentera, and the numerous surrounding islets.

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El Consell Insular d’Eivissa va iniciar a 2014 un programa pilot per avaluar la distribució, l’estat de les poblacions, conèixer aspectes sobre la seva biologia i controlar les poblacions d’ofidis a Eivissa. Les dades preliminars indiquen que dos espècies introduïdes a l’illa d’Eivissa estan naturalitzades i que són abundants a l’entorn de Santa Eulària des Riu, Sant Llorenç de Balàfia i Santa Gertrudis de Fruitera; predomina Hemorrhois hippocrepis i és més escassa Rhinechis scalaris; tanmateix, no hi ha dades de Malpolon monspessulanus des de 2010. Les dos espècies presents en l’actualitat realitzen festejos i còpules al mateix període que a les regions on són natives. Almenys H. hippocrepis realitza postes amb ous viables. La presència de nadons de les dos espècies en dates d’eclosió per la Península Ibèrica pareix constatar la reproducció efectiva. Almenys en H. hippocrepis, s’ha constatat la predació sobre Podarcis pityusensis. Des de la seua introducció en 2003, H. hippocrepis ha mostrat una resposta funcional cap al gigantisme, amb exemplars que mostraven el 213% de la biomassa màxima registrada a la seua àrea nativa de la península Ibèrica. La utilització de trampes pareix efectiva, sempre que el seu número sigui elevat. L’elecció del tipus de trampa, esquer i lloc de col·locació condiciona els resultats obtinguts. Tanmateix, la continuïtat d’aquest estudi al llarg de l’any 2015 es fa imprescindible per augmentar la mida de mostra. El proper any es pretén la utilització de nous mètodes de captura i especialment, la col·locació d’un major número de trampes tipus caixa.

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Amphisbaenia is a speciose clade of fossorial lizards characterized by a snake-like body and a strongly reinforced skull adapted for head-first burrowing1,2. The evolutionary origins of amphisbae- nians are controversial, with molecular data uniting them with lacertids3,4, a clade of Old World terrestrial lizards, whereas mor- phology supports a grouping with snakes and other limbless squa- mates5–9. Reports of fossil stem amphisbaenians10 have been falsified11, and no fossils have previously tested these competing phylogenetic hypotheses or shed light on ancestral amphisbaenian ecology. Here we report the discovery of a new lacertid-like lizard from the Eocene Messel locality of Germany that provides the first morphological evidence for lacertid–amphisbaenian monophyly on the basis of a reinforced, akinetic skull roof and braincase, sup- porting the view that body elongation and limblessness in amphis- baenians and snakes evolved independently. Morphometric analysis of body shape and ecology in squamates indicates that the postcra- nial anatomy of the new taxon is most consistent with opportunis- tically burrowing habits, which in combination with cranial reinforcement indicates that head-first burrowing evolved before body elongation and may have been a crucial first step in the evolu- tion of amphisbaenian fossoriality.

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Recent data demonstrate that flower-visiting and fruitconsuming lizards are strikingly more common on islands compared with the mainland, making them a true island phenomenon. We believe that different DC responses of insular animals might create this phenomenon. However, to confirm this we need more systematic data sampling from mainland and island. Some lizard -plant interactions might be excellent systems with which to study mutualism and potential coevolution between interacting plants and animals, (e.g. Phelsuma -flower mutualisms and Gallotia -fruit mutualisms). In particular, we need more experimental studies to demonstrate lizards that could cause evolutionary changes in flower and fruit traits in island plants. Many island lizard taxa are threatened by extinction or have already disappeared. The importance of mutualisms between plant-feeding lizards and flowering plants add very strong arguments to more joint conservation efforts for these groups of organisms.

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Aim We discuss biogeographical hypotheses for the Mediterranean lizard species Podarcis and Teira within a phylogenetic framework based on partial mitochondrial DNA sequences. Methods We derived the most likely phylogenetic hypothesis from our data set (597 aligned positions from the 12S rDNA and phenyl tRNA) under parsimony, distance and maximum likelihood assumptions. Results The species usually included in Teira do not form a strongly monophyletic clade. In contrast, the monophyly of the genus Podarcis is rather well supported. Seven lineages are identified in the genus; in order of appearance within the tree, these are: the Balearic pityusensis and lilfordi pair, the sicula complex, a Tyrrhenian tiliguerta and raffonei pair, muralis, the Siculo-Maltese filfolensis and wagleriana pair, the Balkan group (erhardi, peloponnesiaca, milensis, melisellensis and taurica), and the Ibero-Maghrebian group (bocagei, atrata, hispanica and vaucheri). Conclusions The origin of the three European genera of lacertid assayed (Lacerta, Teira and Podarcis) is hypothesized to have occurred in the Oligocene. For Podarcis, a possible scenario of a Miocene diversification is derived from the sequence data, and the zoogeography of the lineages are discussed in relation to the palaeogeography of the Mediterranean. It is hypothesized that in the early history of the genus the main lineages separated by rapid, numerous and close events that produced a starting point very similar to a polytomy, hard to resolve by parsimony analysis of the data set.

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Alien predators may impose a great threat to naïve prey. Ibiza wall lizards (Podarcis pityusensis) live in Ibiza, a snake-free island until 2003. We studied the lizards’ discrimination of scents of two invader snakes: one that depredates lizards, the horseshoe whip snake (Hemorrhois hippocrepis), and another that does not, the ladder snake (Rhinechis scalaris). We compared two populations of Ibiza wall lizards: one from the main island of Ibiza, which coexists with both snakes, and another from the nearby snake-free islet of Sal Rossa. Lizards from Ibiza recognized the scent of the horseshoe whip snake and responded with clear antipredatory behaviours. However, they reacted to the scent of the ladder snake similarly to that of the controls (odourless control and pungent scent). Lizards from Sal Rossa did not respond to any of the snakes or the controls. Our results show that lizards can rapidly acquire the ability to react to a novel predator. As only about ten generations of lizards have coexisted with snakes, the most plausible explanation to our results is that lizards have learned to associate the scent of the predatory snake with a threat. This is the first study reporting the rapid acquisition of lizards’ antipredatory responses to the chemical cues of novel predators. However, more research is needed in order to identify the mechanisms implicated in the response.

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In a crossbreed between Lacerta pityusensis kameriana Mertens 1927 and Lacerta pityusensis vedrae L. Müller 1927 the juveniles mostly resembled the female Lacerta p. vedrae.

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The 5x5 km2 biogeogralic distribution 01 the herpethological biota from Eivissa island is listed and represented on a map. Also, some comments about the bibliography 01 the turtles 01 the Pityusic islands are given, together with a report about the linding 01 an individual Testudo graeca near to Corona. The data were recorded between 1992 and 1995, but some inlormation from 1996 has been added.

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Aim We describe current interisland similarities of endemic faunas, and elucidate the significance of historical factors and environmental ones in determining the pattern found. Location The six major islands of the Balearics (Western Mediterranean). Method An extensive review of all the endemic fauna ranging from platyhelminthes to mammals is made. From 568 presumed endemic species and subspecies, 230 full species with neither taxonomic nor distributional uncertainty are chosen. Inter-island similarities are determined using such a presence-absence matrix. Finally, relationships between the matrix of faunistic similarity and a number of matrices measuring environmental and historical factors are elucidated. Results Endemic fauna similarities depend clearly on historical factors. Dependence on environmental factors is unclear. Moreover, endemic fauna reveals two clear-cut clusters of islands within the Balearics: the Gymnesic Islands, in the NE, and the Pityusic Islands in the SW. Historical factors cluster the Balearic Islands in the same way. Contrasting, environmental variables show smoothed, no significant differences among the Gymnesics and the Pityusics. Main conclusions Pre-human flora (palynology) and fauna (bird and mammal fossil record) suggest that environmental differences among the Gymnesics and the Pityusics have now been reduced in comparison to the environmental differences at the Pleistocene and Holocene boundary. This environmental homogenization is likely related with human invasion. Historical effects of prehuman differences between Gymnesic and Pityusic Islands are still recognizable on endemic fauna. In contrast, there is no historical effects on interisland similarities using currently breeding birds (as an example of organisms well-dispersed and related to vegetation type). We explain the pattern of interisland similarities of endemic fauna as the result of the independent histories among the two islands groups. Contrasting, successive colonizations and extinctions would determine interisland similarities of breeding birds.

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Understanding the evolution of conspicuous colour patterns has been a major challenge in evolutionary biology since darwin’s formulation of naztural and sexual selection 150 years ago. A striking case of conspicuous colouration is the structural blue colour found in lizards belonging to several families, including lacertids (Lacertidae). Blue colouration can be restricted to discrete patches, as those found in the flanks or head of many lacertids, or can extend over large areas of the integument as in several insular populations of Lacertini. Recent research has shown that the blue flank and head patches of many lavcertids have their peak of reflectance in the ultravolet (UV) range. It has been suggestes that these UV-blue patches may be part of a private (i.e. available only to receptors with UV vision) communication system. In contrast, nothing is known about the spectral characteristics of those species in which all or large portions of the body surface are blue. Using objective methods of colour measurement and analysis, we studies the spectral characteristics of blue colouration in Podarcis lilfordi kuligae and compared them with those from other blue lacertids. The ventral surface and flank patches of P. lilfordi kuligae are both UV-blue, but their spectral shape is strikingly different, possibly reflecting different underlying selewctive pressures and colour production mechanisms. To our knowledge, this is the first recorded case of polychromatism in the UV part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Our results show that a wide range of spectrally different colouration belie human-perceived blues in lacertids. We analyse visual interactions among lacertid colours and habitat natural backgrounds and propose some hypothesis for the evolution of lizard blue and UV-blue colouration.

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Ultraviolet (UV) vision and UV colour patches have been reported in a wide range of taxa and are increasingly appreciated as an integral part of vertebrate visual perception and communication systems. Previous studies with Lacertidae, a lizard family with diverse and complex coloration, have revealed the existence of UV-reflecting patches that may function as social signals. However, confirmation of the signalling role of UV coloration requires demonstrating that the lizards are capable of vision in the UV waveband. Here we use a multidisciplinary approach to characterize the visual sensitivity of a diverse sample of lacertid species. Spectral transmission measurements of the ocular media show that wavelengths down to 300 nm are transmitted in all the species sampled. Four retinal oil droplet types can be identified in the lacertid retina. Two types are pigmented and two are colourless. Fluorescence microscopy reveals that a type of colourless droplet is UV-transmitting and may thus be associated with UV-sensitive cones. DNA sequencing shows that lacertids have a functional SWS1 opsin, very similar at 13 critical sites to that in the presumed ancestral vertebrate (which was UV-sensitive) and other UV-sensitive lizards. Finally, males of Podarcis muralis are capable of discriminating between two views of the same stimulus that differ only in the presence/absence of UV radiance. Taken together, these results provide convergent evidence of UV vision in lacertids, very likely by means of an independent photopigment. Moreover, the presence of four oil droplet types suggests that lacertids have a four-cone colour vision system.

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Many animals display complex colour patterns that comprise several adjacent, often contrasting colour patches. Combining patches of complementary colours increases the overall conspicuousness of the complex pattern, enhancing signal detection. Therefore, selection for conspicuousness may act not only on the design of single colour patches, but also on their combination. Contrasting long- and short-wavelength colour patches are located on the ventral and lateral surfaces of many lacertid lizards. As the combination of long- and short-wavelength-based colours generates local chromatic contrast, we hypothesized that selection may favour the co-occurrence of lateral and ventral contrasting patches, resulting in complex colour patterns that maximize the overall conspicuousness of the signal. To test this hypothesis we performed a comparative phylogenetic study using a categorical colour classification based on spectral data and descriptive information on lacertid coloration collected from the literature. Our results demonstrate that conspicuous ventral (long wavelength-based) and lateral (short wavelength-based) colour patches co-occur throughout the lacertid phylogeny more often than expected by chance, especially in the subfamily Lacertini. These results suggest that selection promotes the evolution of the complex pattern rather than the acquisition of a single conspicuous colour patch, possibly due to the increased conspicuousness caused by the combination of colours with contrasting spectral properties.

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We examined the diets of several species of Podarcis from different western Mediterranean islands. We tested the prediction of more generalized diets in lizards from poor environments. We also examined the extert and mode of herbivory in relation to arthropod diversity in the diet. Lizards from the Tuscan Archipelago, P. sicula from Menorca, and P. tiliguerta from Corsica all show a rather generalized diet. In contrast, P. lilfordi and P. pilyusensis from the Balearic Islands and, to a lesser extent, P. hispanica from Benidorm Island, appear much more stenophagous, including a high proportion of clumped prey in their diets. Plant matter is a common food item in most of the population studied, specially in Balearic lizards. A marked seasonal shift in the degree of herbivory was observed in these species where high-energy plant parts are frequently consumed during summer. In one of the Balearic Islands (Nitge), the bulk of the summer diet was formed by pollen and nectar of one particular plant species. Herbivory, consumption of clumped prey and other dietary peculiarities of insular populations of Mediterranean lizards indicate a very flexible feeding behaviour compared to mainland congenerics. This could result from a lack of predation pressure allowing high population densities to be reached in islets with poor trophic resources. Differences found in dietary characteristics among island populations can be interpreted as a consequence of different current ecological conditions, as well as historical and biogeographical differences among the islands.

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Tail autotomy is one of the main anti-predator mechanisms of lacertid lizards, but it has been predicted that it is only retained in its full capacity when its benefits exceed its costs (Arnold, 1988). To test this hypothesis, ease of tail shedding was examined in a number of continental and insular lacertid lizard populations, each of which showed a different shedding capacity. Tails are shed more easily in those continental and insular populations where there is a greater probability of predation. In insular populations not subjected to strong predation, the tail tends to be retained. The relationship of these findings to insular Mediterranean lizard populations and to the extinction of the Balearic lizard, Podarcis lilfordi are discussed.

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Knowledge of Balearic amphibians and reptiles is closely linked to the development of European herpetology itself. The first herpetological study of the Balearic Islands was made at the end of the 18th century and during the first decades of the 19th century. We divide herpetological explorations of the Balearic Islands into three periods: first, a general approach by local naturalists and travellers; second, scientific exploration of the archipelago by professional collectors and herpetologists from the most important European museums and universities, with studies mainly focused on systematics and taxonomy; and third, scientific description of evolutionary processes observed on islands and their relationship to emergent disciplines such as island biogeography and insular ecology. In this work, we review these most important steps in the development of herpetological knowledge of the Balearic Islands from two different and complementary approaches: the origin, personality and objectives of researchers, and the discoveries they made during more than two centuries.

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While the use of faecal pellets is widely accepted as a primary methodological source of data for dietary studies, a recent paper advocated for the use of gut contents. This was due to the fact that faecal samples would give biased results of the diet of arthropod predators, due to a lower representation of soft-bodied prey in faecal pellets. To test this assumption, we compared the spring diet of several populations of two insular lizards from the Balearic Islands (Spain), Podarcis lilfordi and Podarcis pityusensis, using both faecal pellets and gut contents. Our results do not support the supposed bias of dietary analyses based on faecal pellets. Indeed, soft-bodied prey and particularly insect larvae are often equally represented in faecal pellets and gut contents. Alternatively, soft bodied prey are represented in different proportions in gut contents and faecal pellets, but in some cases with higher proportions being observed in the gut contents, and in other cases with higher proportions in faecal samples. We conclude that faecal pellets can be a reliable source of information for dietary studies.

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The Ibizan wall lizard, Podarcis pityusensis, was the subject of several documented translocations by the German vertebrate zoologist Martin Eisentraut, in 1930. He aimed to initiate long-term experiments into the evolution of melanism and other morphological traits and accordingly he designed introductions into five islets that (he believed) contained no lizards. In this study, we analyzed the genetic and morphological characteristics of individuals we found there. We found no lizards on two of the islets, namely Escull de Tramuntana and Galera, but for the first time, detected a large population on a third islet, Es Vaixell. Eisentraut founded the Es Vaixell population with nonmelanistic Ibizan specimens, but the present day population of Es Vaixell was found to be fully melanistic. Genetic markers support a strong similarity between Es Vaixell and its neighbour islet, Na Gorra, and indicate that, in all likelihood, the individuals introduced by Eisentraut have left no descendants. It is likely that Es Vaixell already contained lizards prior to this introduction. Analyses of microsatellite DNA placed individuals from a fourth islet, Dau Gran, with those of one of its source islet, Escull Vermell. They are also morphologically close to individuals from Escull Vermell. This suggests that selection pressures could have favoured the Escull Vermell phenotype following introduction. For reasons we discuss, the translocations have revealed less than Eisentraut would have originally hoped for. Although evolutionary processes are normally time-consuming, these translocations do provide some potential insights into the rapid evolution of lizard morphology following colonization.

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The behavioral thermoregulation of P. pityusensis was studied for a period of one week during August, 1980. The cloacal temperatures and the ground and air temperatures were recorded by means of thermistors. P. pityusensis behaves like a heliotermic species with a temperature range between 28.5 and 41.5 ° C. Very significant correlations were found to exist between the Tc (Body temperatures) and the Ta (Air temperatures) or between the Tc and the Ts (Ground temperatures) in all ofthe specimens analyzed. There are also significant statistical differences between te mean Tc in individuals during thermoregulation and the Tc of individuals active on the ground or inactive underneath stones. The daily pattern of activity is bimodal; the variations in body temperatures, being as a whole relatively independent of the fluctuations in the ambient temperature, adjust themselves to this pattern. P. pityusensis, roughly speaking, manifest several characteristics of the behavioral thermoregulation and pattern of activity similar to those described for other lizards such as Psammodromos algirus, inhabitants of the mediterranean region which is characterized by its hot, dry summers.

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In order to establish the basic management guidelines for the most threatened amphibian and reptile species in the Balearic Islands, the Plan for the recovery and conservation of amphibians and reptiles in the Balearic Islands, known as Plan Boscà, has been developed and is pending its final approval. It is a group plan that includes two species of amphibians and three reptiles including: i) the populations of the Balearic toad Bufotes balearicus in Ibiza and the populations of the Ferreret Alytes muletensis in Mallorca, ii) the populations of the Moorish tortoise Testudo graeca on the island of Majorca, iii) the populations of the Balearic lizard Podarcis lilfordi from Majorca and Menorca and iv) the populations of the Pitiusan lizard Podarcis pityusensis from Ibiza and Formentera. In the plan they develop a set of management actions, which are divided between generic actions for the entire group of species contained in the plan and those specific to each species. The generic actions common to all species include: i) promoting research and training to improve knowledge, ii) dissemination and citizen participation, and iii) administrative coordination. The actions for the Balearic toad include i) knowledge of the current status of the species, ii) habitat management, with the review and updating of potential localities and the creation of new ones to favor connectivity and iii) monitoring of the species . The actions for the black tortoise include i) improving knowledge of the current distribution, ii) monitoring populations and creating and strengthening them, iii) improving connectivity between populations and iv) captive breeding. . The actions for the Balearic and Pitiusan lizard include i) updating knowledge and in-depth evaluation of its conservation status, ii) monitoring populations, iii) managing introduced species such as invasive snakes, iv) quality control of the habitat and v) the revision of the protection category in the Balearic Catalog of Threatened Species, as well as the revision in the official forms of the spaces integrated in the Natura 2000 Network.

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Here, we update the current list of amphibian and reptile fauna present in the Balearic Islands, probably the most outstanding case in the Mediterranean and of the most in the world where massive species introduction is in conflict with the survivorship of highly restricted endemic taxa. Resulting of a long term evolution in insularity, endemic herpetofauna was already decimated during the Pleistocene but, after the human colonisation of the archipelago, the introduction of alien species, passive or deliberate, has been provoking new extinctions and range retractions in the native herpetofauna. Such process is not interrupted but has even intensified during the last years. The current species list is composed by five amphibians (one native) and 21 reptiles (2 native). A critical review of the evidence on extinctions and introductions is provided together with the conservation implications. Compared to the last review (Mayol, 1985) six new reptile species are now naturalised or are in process of naturalization, colubrid snakes constituting the most conflicting element due to their predator role.

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The monophyletic species subgroup of Podarcis tauricus is distributed in the western and southern parts of the Balkans, and includes four species with unresolved and unstudied inter- and intra-specific phylogenetic relationships. Using sequence data from two mitochondrial and three nuclear genes and applying several phylogenetic methods and species delimitation approaches to an extensive dataset, we have reconstructed the phylogeny of the Podarcis wall lizards in the Balkans, and re-investigated the taxonomic status of the P. tauricus species subgroup. Multilocus analyses revealed that the aforementioned subgroup consists of five major clades, with P. melisellensis as its most basal taxon. Monophyly of P. tauricus sensu stricto is not supported, with one of the subspecies (P. t. ionicus) displaying great genetic diversity (hidden diversity or cryptic species). It comprises five, geographically distinct, subclades with genetic distances on the species level. Species delimitation approaches revealed nine species within the P. tauricus species subgroup (P. melisellensis, P. gaigeae, P. milensis, and six in the P. tauricus complex), underlining the necessity of taxonomic re-evaluation. We thus synonymize some previously recognized subspecies in this subgroup, elevate P. t. tauricus and P. g. gaigeae to the species level and suggest a distinct Albanian-Greek clade, provisionally named as the P. ionicus species complex. The latter clade comprises five unconfirmed candidate species that call for comprehensive studies in the future.

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Comparisons among eight populations of Podarcis lilfordi, seven of Podarcis pityusensis (representative lizards of the Balearic Archipielago), and one of Podarcis hispanica atrata fro the Columbretes Islands, have been made from a morphological point of view, measuring 15 morphometric characters of the lizards. Cluster and discriminant analyses were obtained for males and females to show the relationships among the different populations and species. These analyses gave three groups: one of them with the most P. lilfordi populations, other with the most P. pityusensis populations, and a well seperated group with the P. hispanica atrata species. Some populations connect the groups of P. lilfordi and P. pityusensis. The possibility that P. lilfordi and P. pityusensis be two pattern of variation inside the same species instead of two well differentiated species is considered, altrough further studies are necessary.

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A major task related to conservation is to predict if planned infrastructure projects are likely to threaten biodiversity. In this study we investigated the potential impact of planned infrastructure in Spain on amphibian and reptile species, two highly vulnerable groups given their limited dispersal and current situation of population decline. We used distribution data of both groups to identify areas of high herpetofauna diversity, and compared the locations of these areas with the locations of the planned road, high-speed train railway and water reservoir network. Four criteria were used for this identification: species richness, rarity, vulnerability, and a combined index of the three criteria. From a total of 1441 cells of 20!20 km, areas of high diversity were defined as those cells whose ranked values for the different criteria included either all species or all threatened species. The combined index provided the smallest number of cells needed to retain all threatened species (1.7 and 2.6% of the cells for amphibian and reptile species, respectively). Coincidences between these high diversity areas and cells including planned infrastructures - denominated - alert planning units - were 35.4% for amphibians and 31.2% for reptiles. Mitigation of the potential impacts would include actions such as barriers to animal access to roads and railways and ecoducts under these constructions. Our approach provides conservation authorities information that can be used to make decisions on habitat protection. A technique that identifies threats to herpetofauna before they occur is also likely to improve the chance of herpetofauna being protected.

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Seven lizard species of the genus Podarcis living in several islands of the Mediterranean Basin, have been helminthologically searched. Nineteen helminth species have been found: 2 trematodes, 4 cestodes, 12 nematodes and 1 acanthocephalan. The structure of the helminth infracommunities of the hosts has been analysed. There are a few component species mainly the Pharyngodonidae nematodes and the trematode Paradistomum mutabile. Also the larval forms of cestodes, nematodes and acanthocephalans are qualitatively important in the helminth faunas of Mediterranean lizards. Their presence indicate that these saurians are intermediate hosts when thet are taken as prey by small carnivorous or birds of prey. The diversity parameters such a species richness, abundance and Brillouin`s index, indicate that the helminth infracommunities of these lizards are depauperate and isolationist as it occurs in most saurians.

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The effect of several abiotic and biotic factors (island area, distance from a potential colonizing source, sex, age and diet of the host) on helminth diversity of the endemic balearic lizards Podarcis pityusensis and Podarcis lilfordi caught on small islets of the Balearic islands, has been studied.

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The endemic lacertid lizards of the Balearic Islands, Podarcis pityusensis and Podarcis lilfordi, are carnivorous saurians although vegetable matter is important for them in som islands and peculiar environmental conditions. Nevertheless the analysis of their helminth faunas, showed that the herbivorism of these lacertid lizards is a secondary adaptation.

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Analysis on the component communities of four populations of Podarcis pityusensis (Lacertidae) have been carried out. Two of the host populations were isolated one another, both living in separated islets, and two were non isolated populations both living in the same island. We tested the Poulin´s hypothesis concerning the structure of helminth component communities in isolated and non-isolated host populations. Three of the host populations show helminth communities that agree Poulin´s predictions. But in one of them that predictions are failed probably due to antropic actions.

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The parasitic female of the nematode Strongyloides ophiusensis sp. n.. fund in the intestine of lizard Podarcis pityusensis (Bosca, 1883) from Balearic Islands (West Mediterranean), is described. This species differs from other similar Strongyloides species in the body size, the morphology of the stoma, the structure of the ovaries and in the stage of development of the eggs, and also in some ecological and chorological characters.

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The knowledge of the helminth communities of reptiles and their ecological relationships with their hosts are until the present not well known. Some general researches have been made only on American herps (AHO 1990). Recently, ROCA & HORNERO (1991a, 1991b) attempted similar kind of researches from Mediter- ranean insularlizards.

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A survey of the helminth communities of Podarcis pityusensis (Bosca, 1883) and Podarcis lilfordi (Gunther, 1874) (Sauria: Lacertidae) from the Pityusic and Gimnesic islands, respectively, in the Balearic Islands, Spain, was conducted. Both host species harbour similar though not identical helminth infracommunities. An analysis of the patterns of diversity for all helminths revealed that both lizards have depauperate isolationist infracommunities, possibly as a result of factors such as host ectothermy, the simplicity of their digestive canal, low vagility, and generalist feeding.

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The ingestion of fruits by vertebrate frugivores produces great variation on seed germination responses which depend on (1) the frugivorous species; (2) several factors intrinsic to the plant species; and (3) the conditions under which germination tests are conducted. Most studies on this topic have used only one or a few disperser species, and have been performed under controlled conditions. The main goals of this study were to determine (1) the effect that birds (blackbird, Turdus merula) and lizards (Podarcis pityusensis) have on seed emergence patterns of a group of common Mediterranean plants (e.g., Crataegus monogyna, Ephedra fragilis, Juniperus phoenicea, Osyris alba, Pistacia lentiscus, Rhamnus alaternus, Rhamnus ludovici-salvatorus, Rubia peregrina, Rubus ulmifolius [Rubus inermis], Smilax aspera, Solanum luteum and Solanum nigrum); and (2) whether such patterns differ between field and common garden conditions. Over 2 years we compared seed emergence times with those of controls (pulp-removed seeds). Emergence patterns were inconsistent for most plant species when comparing field (scrubland) vs. common-garden conditions. In some cases results were even contradictory: for instance lizards accelerated the emergence time of Rubus seeds in the field, but delayed it in the experimental garden; likewise Rubia seeds ingested by blackbirds emerged more slowly than controls in the field, but faster than those in the garden. The two frugivorous species had also inconsistent effects on the same plant species. Significant changes in seed weight after passage through the animals` digestive tracts were observed in most species. However, seed weight did not explain differences in seed emergence patterns between ingested and non-ingested seeds. This study demonstrates the great heterogeneity in seed emergence responses of the different plant species to ingestion by different types of frugivore, and to the different experimental conditions. Thus, caution is needed when making generalizations from studies that aim to evaluate the influence of frugivores on seed dispersal quality.

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Two monophyletic sister species of wall lizards inhabit the two main groups of Balearic Islands: Podarcis lilfordi from islets and small islands around Mallorca and Menorca and Podarcis pityusensis from Ibiza, Formentera and associated islets. Genetic diversity within the endangered P. lilfordi has been well characterized, but P. pityusensis has not been studied in depth. Here, 2430 bp of mtDNA and 15 microsatellite loci were analysed from P. pityusensis populations from across its natural range. Two main genetic groupings were identified, although geographical structuring differed slightly between the mtDNA and the nuclear loci. In general, individuals from islets/islands adjacent to the main island of Ibiza were genetically distinct from those from Formentera and the associated Freus islands for both mtDNA and the nuclear loci. However, most individuals from the island of Ibiza were grouped with neighbouring islets/islands for nuclear loci, but with Formentera and Freus islands for the mitochondrial locus. A time-calibrated Bayesian tree was constructed for the principal mitochondrial lineages within the Balearics, using the multispecies coalescent model, and provided statistical support for divergence of the two main P. pityusensis lineages 0.111–0.295 Ma. This suggests a mid-late Pleistocene intraspecific divergence, compared with an early Pleistocene divergence in P. lilfordi, and postdates some major increases in sea level between 0.4 and 0.6 Ma, which may have flooded Formentera. The program IMa2 provided a posterior divergence time of 0.089–0.221 Ma, which was similar to the multispecies coalescent tree estimate. More significantly, it indicated low but asymmetric effective gene copy migration rates, with higher migration from Formentera to Ibiza populations. Our findings suggest that much of the present-day diversity may have originated from a late Pleistocene colonization of one island group from the other, followed by allopatric divergence of these populations. Subsequent gene flow between these insular groups seems likely to be explained by recent human introductions. Two evolutionary significant units can be defined for P. pityusensis but these units would need to exclude the populations that have been the subjects of recent admixture.

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Background: Podarcis tiliguerta is a wall lizard endemic to the Mediterranean islands of Corsica and Sardinia. Previous findings of high mtDNA and morphological diversity have led to the suggestion that it may represent a species complex. Here, we analysed mitochondrial and nuclear markers (mtDNA, 3110 bp; 6 nDNA loci, 3961 bp) in P. tiliguerta sampled from thirty-two localities across Corsica and Sardinia. Results: We find much greater intraspecific genetic divergence than between sister species of other Mediterranean island Podarcis, i.e., between P. lilfordi and P. pityusensis. We detected three mtDNA clusters in Corsica (North, South-East and South-West) and either two or three in Sardinia (North vs. South) depending on the clustering method. Only one or two nDNA groups were identified within each main island (again, depending on the method). A Bayesian time- calibrated multispecies coalescent tree was obtained from mtDNA and provided statistical support for a Miocene origin of the species (13.87 Ma, 95% HPD: 18.30–10.77 Ma). The posterior mean divergence time for the Corsican and Sardinian lineages was 12.75 Ma ago (95% HPD: 16.94–9.04 Ma). Conclusion: The results support the evolutionary distinctiveness of Corsican and Sardinian populations and also indicate a lack of post-divergence migration despite periods of contact being possible. Further to this, species delimitation analyses of Corsican and Sardinian lineages provided statistical support for their recognition as distinct (sister) taxa. Our results provide new insights into the biogeography of the Mediterranean biodiversity hotspot, and contribute important findings relevant to the systematics and evolution of this speciose lizard genus.

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A number of the subspecies were studied over several visits to Formentera and Ibiza. Podarcis pityusensis pityusensis is found on Ibiza. However, several animals of different colours were found not all of which conformed to the for that island described subspecies. Furthermore, on Formentera different forms of Podarcis pityusensis formenterae were observed. Three hybrids resulting from a cross between a male Podarcis lilfordi giglioli (Sa Dragonera) and a female Podarcis pityusensis formenterae were born under terrarium conditions. These hybrids proved to be fertile, after mating with Podarcis lilfordi lilfordi (Illa de l`Aire) males these three females laid 12 eggs. Due to a number of circumstances only one egg hatched but a normal young was produced. The various forms of Podarcis pityusensis are found not only on small islets but also on the main islands. Their presence seems to be dependent on the substrate. The hybrids and the various forms of Podarcis pityusensis on the main islands makes it questionable whether the classification of these animals into a great number of subspecies, or even into two species, is justified.

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Biodiversity loss, including the decrease of diversity of ecological interactions, is known to reduce the capacity of ecosystems to cope with the effects of global change. Here we assessed whether the distribution and survival of two declining relict plant species, Daphne rodriguezii and Cneorum tricoccon, were affected by the mutualism disruption with their only seed-disperser and by climatic and habitat conditions. Due to the lack of data on demographic rates, we used an indirect approach to test these hypotheses. We used presence–absence data as response variables and took two distinct sets of predictors (i.e. habitat and topoclimatic conditions), which were hypothesized to be the main determinants of the demographic rates under question. With these two datasets we fitted species distribution models by means of MaxEnt. Such models were later used to build Combined Species Distributions Models (CM). For each plant species, these CM allowed evaluating the role of both climatic and non-climatic factors, such as the mutualism disruption. Results showed that both climate and habitat conditions determined the current distribution of the two species at a landscape scale. Additionally, the mutualism disruption between C. tricoccon and its native seed-disperser affected plant distribution, moving it to areas where a new alien disperser was present. This alien disperser modified the pattern of habitat selection by plants in terms of habitat quality, reducing their presence in suboptimal areas, which might be the determinant for their survival. Our findings highlight the need of a better understanding of the role of mutualisms within natural communities in order to undertake appropriate conservation actions on threatened plant populations. Furthermore, acting on key factors affecting plant–disperser disruptions (e.g. controlling invasive species) might help to mitigate the effects of global change on declining relict plants.

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Sex chromosomes are believed to be stable in endotherms, but young and evolutionary unstable in most ectothermic vertebrates. Within lacertids, the widely radiated lizard group, sex chromosomes have been reported to vary in morphology and heterochroma- tinization, which may suggest turnovers during the evolution of the group. We compared the partial gene content of the Z-specific part of sex chromosomes across major lineages of lacertids and discovered a strong evolutionary stability of sex chromosomes. We can conclude that the common ancestor of lacertids, living around 70million years ago (Mya), already had the same highly differentiated sex chromosomes. Molecular data demonstrating an evolutionary conservation of sex chro- mosomes have also been documented for iguanas and caenophidian snakes. It seems that differences in the evolutionary conservation of sex chromosomes in vertebrates do not reflect the distinction between endotherms and ectotherms, but rather between amniotes and anamniotes, or generally, the differences in the life history of particular lineages.

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In addition to species of the North Spanish herpetofauna the allochthonous and wellestablished populations of the Ibiza wall lizard Podarcis pityusensis and the Italian wall lizard Podarcis siculus were observed at Spain`s Atlantic coast.

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Report on a visit to two introduced populations of Podarcis pityusensis on the Spanish Atlantic coast on the island of San Juan Gaztelugatxe and at Monte Ugull in San Sebastian.

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During a short visit to the Balearic Island Mallorca in August 2008 field observations on the nutrition of the endemic subspecies of the Balearic Lizard on Dragonera (Sa Dragonera) as well as the introduced population of the Ibiza Wall Lizard in Palma de Mallorca were made. These observations are briefly described considering literature relevant to mutualistic interactions between the lizards and fructiferous plants.

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Conclusion: It seems that morphological radiation on islets is due to adaptations to minute microclimate variations among islets, rather than to the history of migrations among islands or random genetic drift.

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In recent years, great attention has been paid to many Podarcis species for which the observed intra-specific variability often revealed species complexes still characterized by an unresolved relationship. When compared to other species, P. siculus underwent fewer revisions and the number of species hidden within this taxon may have been, therefore, underestimated. However, recent studies based on genetic and morphological data highlighted a marked differentiation of the populations inhabiting the western Pontine Archipelago. In the present work we used published genetic data (three mitochondrial and three nuclear gene fragments) from 25 Podarcis species to provide a multilocus phylogeny of the genus in order to understand the degree of differentiation of the western Pontine populations. In addition, we analyzed new morphometric traits (scale counts) of 151 specimens from the main islands of the Pontine Archipelago. The phylogenetic analysis revealed five principal Podarcis groups with biogeographic consistency. The genetic distinctiveness of the Podarcis populations of the western Pontine Islands is similar or even more ancient than those observed in numerous other pairs of Podarcis sister species. In the light of these evidences we raise the western Pontine lizards to specific rank; thus they should be referred to as Podarcis latastei.

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Whereas the range size of endangered species is undoubtfuly useful to predict risk of extinction, the role of their life-history characteristics is much less clear, and their effects may depend on the nature of the threatening factors. Such factors, for instance, are known to be different on islands and on the mainland. We used phylogenetically based statistical analyses to study the relationships among conservation status, insularity, range size, and life-history traits in a clade of Western Palaearctic lacertids including insular and continental species. These lizards are ecologically similar, but they show wide variation in life-history traits and vulnerability to extinction. Insular species of a given size had smaller clutches than mainland ones. Degree of threat was best predicted by a logistic regression including range size, insularity, clutch size, and the insularity × clutch size interaction. On the mainland, but not on islands, threatened species had smaller clutches than non-threatened ones. On islands, small clutch size is probably an adaptive trait, and it might predispose certain species to extinction, but the intrinsic characteristics of such species remain unclear. However, small clutch size was a good predictor of extinction risk on the mainland, having evolved most frequently in late maturing species from montane habitats in which climatic conditions limit their reproductive output and increase their vulnerability to stochastic hazards or habitat fragmentation.

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Biological invasions are a major conservation threat for biodiversity worldwide. Islands are particularly vulnerable to invasive species, especially Mediterranean islands which have suffered human pressure since ancient times. In the Balearic archipelago, reptiles represent an outstanding case with more alien than native species. Moreover, in the last decade a new wave of alien snakes landed in the main islands of the archipelago, some of which were originally snake-free. The identification of the origin and colonization pathways of alien species, as well as the prediction of their expansion, is crucial to develop effective conservation strategies. In this study, we used molecular markers to assess the allochthonous status and the putative origin of the four introduced snake species (Hemorrhois hippocrepis, Malpolon monspessulanus, Macroprotodon mauritanicus and Rhinechis scalaris) as well as ecological niche models to infer their patterns of invasion and expansion based on current and future habitat suitability. For most species, DNA sequence data suggested the Iberian Peninsula as the potential origin of the allochthonous populations, although the shallow phylogeographic structure of these species prevented the identification of a restricted source-area. For all of them, the ecological niche models showed a current low habitat suitability in the Balearic, which is however predicted to increase significantly in the next few decades under climate change scenarios. Evidence from direct observations and spatial distribution of the first-occurrence records of alien snakes (but also lizards and worm lizards) suggest the nursery trade, and in particular olive tree importation from Iberian Peninsula, as the main pathway of introduction of alien reptiles in the Balearic islands. This trend has been reported also for recent invasions in NE Spain, thus showing that olive trees transplantation may be an effective vector for bioinvasion across the Mediterranean. The combination of molecular and ecological tools used in this study reveals a promising approach for the understanding of the complex invasion process, hence guiding conservation management actions.

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Balearic herpetofauna represents a paradigmatic case of multiple bio- logical invasions within the Mediterranean Basin, with a much higher number of alien amphibians (i.e. frogs and toads) and reptiles (i.e. lizards, snakes and turtles/ tortoises) than native. The paleogeography of the Balearic Islands, located on Western Mediterranean between Spain and Sardinia, is complex, comprehending an ancient split from the continent during the late Miocene and Pleistocene climatic fluctuations connecting and disconnecting islands from one another (but not them to the continent) that eventually re-shaped the archipelago’s biota. The archipelago has been also influenced by humans since the Neolithic, being a cross-road for alien biota between North Africa and Southern Europe, which caused range regressions and extinctions in the native herpetofauna, nowadays restricted to one amphibian and two reptiles. During the last century, tourism development, the pet trade, and cargo transport of ornamental plants have produced a new wave of biological invasions. Recently introduced snakes are of particular concern, since the effect of predation may seriously threaten the remaining native reptiles in the main islands and endemic subspecies in surrounding islets. Balearic people have a negative social perception of such snakes, mainly due to the lack of familiarity with snakes among islanders but also to the herpetophobic attitude of many Mediterranean cultures. Here we review the herpetological invasions in the Balearic Archipelago and their impacts. We further discuss the on-going management actions on alien reptiles in this archipelago, namely the control of invasive snakes in Ibiza involving monitoring, trapping, environmental education and promotion of social participation.

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Aim: The Mediterranean basin has a long history of interactions between humans and biota, with multiple ancient and recent introductions of alien species. Such a multitude of introductions makes it difficult to distinguish between alien and native species but provides an excellent opportunity to investigate factors related to intro ‐ductions and long‐term persistence of alien species. In this study, we combined ge ‐netic and distribution data to identify the factors promoting the presence of alien reptiles on islands, considering human‐related, geographic and species features. Furthermore, we assessed whether the use of genetic evidence to identify alien spe ‐cies improves inference of the factors determining their distribution.Location: Mediterranean islands.Methods: We combined genetic data and distribution databases to obtain informa‐tion on biological traits and on the native/alien status of reptiles on >900 Mediterranean islands, and we gathered data on geographic and human features of islands. We then used spatially explicit generalized additive mixed models to identify the factors associated with the establishment of alien reptiles.Results: Alien reptile populations are more frequent on islands far from the native range and with large human population. Alien populations of reptiles that are able to feed on plants are particularly frequent. Traditional data sources underestimate the frequency of alien reptiles on Mediterranean islands, and using genetic evidence to assess the status of populations provided a more complete picture of the factors as ‐sociated with the presence of alien populations.Main conclusions: Humans are key drivers of the distribution of alien reptiles on Mediterranean islands, but the distributions are determined by a complex interplay between human activities, geographic factors and species features. Genetic data are essential for obtaining reliable biogeographic assessments of invasive species, par ‐ticularly in systems with a long history of human influence.

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In the abandoned quarry of San Carlos (Ibiza, Balearics) prey remains of the barn owl were collected. A total of 6,977 identifiable bone remains from 2,767 individuals of mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians was found. The spectrum of mammals clearly shows two main prey groups: mice (Mus domesticus, M. spretus: 39.4 %) and shrews (Crocidura russula, C. suaveolens: 38.4 %). Voles, which in continental Europe are the owl ≈s most numerous prey, are absent on Ibiza; these were replaced by mice and shrews. The record of the Pityusic wall lizard Podarcis pityusensis in the prey remains (0.5%) is remarkable. Obviously, the periods of activity of lizard and barn owl do not ordinarily overlap. One possible explanation might be that due to low prey density, Tyto alba probably starts hunting earlier during summer with its shorter nights. A skull of the European free-tailed bat (Tadarida teniotis) was recorded from the sediment, definitely confirming this species for the first time on Ibiza.

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Research on the taxonomy of European amphibians and reptiles has increased noticeably over the last few decades, indicating the need for recognition of new species and the cancellation of others. This paper provides a critical review of recent changes and draws up a tentative species list.

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The last species list of the European herpetofauna was published by Speybroeck, Beukema and Crochet (2010). In the meantime, ongoing research led to numerous taxonomic changes, including the discovery of new species-level lineages as well as reclassifications at genus level, requiring significant changes to this list. As of 2019, a new Taxonomic Committee was established as an official entity within the European Herpetological Society, Societas Europaea Herpetologica (SEH). Twelve members from nine European countries reviewed, discussed and voted on recent taxonomic research on a case-by-case basis. Accepted changes led to critical compilation of a new species list, which is hereby presented and discussed. According to our list, 301 species (95 amphibians, 15 chelonians, including six species of sea turtles, and 191 squamates) occur within our expanded geographical definition of Europe. The list includes 14 non-native species (three amphibians, one chelonian, and ten squamates).

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Elements of the herpetofauna are in the author`s opinion of great importance for the zoogeographical division of the Palaearctic region. It is suggested that this region be divided into the following four subregions: 1/ arctic, 2/ boreal Euro-Siberian, 3/ bo- real Himalayan-Manchurian and 4/ Mediterranean-Central-Asiatic.

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Wahrend meines Aufenthaltes auf den Balearen im Sommer 1913 habe ich ein ziemlich umfangreiches herpetologi- sches Material gesammelt, das ich gemeinsam mit Herrn Otto Cyren bearbeitet habe.

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Podarcis lilfordi, juntament amb Podarcis pityusensis, són les dues espècies endèmiques de sargantanes que habiten les illes Balears. A partir de cinc fragments de DNA mitocondrial (cytb-1, cytb2, rRNA12S, regió control i NADH) i un fragment de DNA nuclear (C-mos) s`han establert les relacions filogenètiques i els esdeveniments cladogenètics que han configurat l`estructura genètica actual de podarcis lilfordi i la relació amb P. pityusensis. Hem situat la separació de les dues espècies al final de la Crisi Messiniana, ocorreguda a la Mar Mediterrània al final de Miocè (fa 5,33 Ma). S`ha detectat una estructura genètica coherent amb la distribució geogràfica en quatre grans grups de P. lilfordi. El primer grup està format per totes les poblacions de Menorca; el segon agrupa les poblacions de les illes de l`oest de Mallorca (Dragonera, Malgrats i Toro); el tercer grup està format per les poblacions dels illots del Freu de Cabrera amb presència d`alguns illots de Mallorca (es Colomer i sa Porrassa); i el quart està format per les poblacions dels illots que enrevolten Cabrera gran i els illots del sud d`aquest arxipèlag. S`ha aconseguit datar amb exactitud els grans nodes de la filogènia de P. lilfordi. Tots aquest processos cladogenètics s`han produït a partir del Pliocè superior i durant tot el Plistocè. El primer event cladogenètic, corresponent a la separació de Menorca, se situa al final del del Pliocè (fa 2,6-2,8 Ma). El segon procés de cladogènisi correspon a la separació de les illes de l`Oest, datat de fa 2,0-2,3 Ma. El node que separa el grup de les illes del Freu (grup tres) de les del sud de Cabrera (grup quatre) està datat en 1,2 Ma. Els mecanismes de diferenciació que hem detectat a cada un d`aquest quatre grans llinatges han estat: expansió demogràfica al grup de Menorca, fragmentació alopàtrica al grup d`illes de l`Oest i als Estells del sud de Cabrera, colonització a llarga distància a les illes des Sud de Mallorca, i fragmentació de l`hàbitat en el cas del Colomer. No es pot descartar algunes dispersions antropogèniques tant en períodes històrics com fins i tot a l`actualitat.

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Two endemic species of Podarcis inhabit the Balearic archipelago: Podarcis lilfordi in the Gymnesies islands (Mallorca, Menorca, Cabrera and associated islets) and Podarcis pityusensis in the Pityuses islands (Ibiza, Formentera and surrounding islets). Predation by introduced weasels, hedgekogs, feral cats, rats and snakes probably eliminated these species from the main island of Menorca and Mallorca. A high number of subspecies have been described by means of morphological data, but they have not been confirmed by molecular data. We have studied mtDNA sequence from part of the cytochrome b gene from specimens from different islands and islets. A clear separation between both species is found, although the genetic distance is lower than those between mainland species of Podarcis, indicating a shorter divergence time. These results were positively correlated with those obtained by means of enzymatic polymorphisms. A FST mean value (0.868) was found for all samples indicating strong structuring of the populations, higher than values obtained in other populations of lizards. The differentiation between P. lilfordi samples, estimated by FST and genetic distances, does not confirm the monophyly of the two presently accepted subspecies. A high migration rate detected among P. pityusensis samples does not support the numerous subspecies described in Ibiza and Formentera area, confirming the systematic pattern proposed by Salvador (1984). The divergence time estimated are in accordance with geological data, and suggest a similar rate of divergence, i.e., 2% per my, postulated for this gene region by other studies.

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Sequences of the cytochrome b gene were analysed for 47 samples of two species of Podarcis from the Balearic Islands (P. pityusensis from Pityuses and P. lilfordi, from Gymnesies archipelago). The average uncorrected distance between the two species studied was 9.7%. The sampled individuals from each species form reciprocally monophyletic units. Assuming an overall rate of change for cytochrome b of 2% per million years the nucleotide divergence of 9.7 ± 1.9% between P. lilfordi and P. pityusensis, could correspond to a divergence time of 4.95 ± 0.95 million years. The separation time between Gymnesies and Pityuses archipelagos according to geological hypotheses is around 5 million years, thus our results suggest the ancestors of the two present forms became isolated during this event. The most parsimonious networks suggest that currently accepted subspecies do not form monophyletic groups, and so should be reassessed. Despite our limited sampling the level of variability is much higher in P. lilfordi than P. pityusensis. Since they are sister taxa the relative age of each species is equal, therefore the differences might be due to historical population structure differences. However it seems that the forms on the islands are not genetically distinct units, implying that morphological differences are recent adaptations to their environments.

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Two endemic species of Podarcis inhabit the Balearic archipelago, Podarcis lilfordi in Gymnesic islands (Mallorca, Menorca, Cabrera and associated islets) and Podarcis pityusensis in Pityusic islands (Ibiza, Formentera and surrounding islets). The morphological variation within both these species is considerable, and has lead to 28 and 23 subspecies in P. lilfordi and P. pityusensis, respectively, being generally accepted. Many are restricted to extremely small islets. A preliminary genetic study indicated high genetic diversity among P. lilfordi while diversity was lower within P. pityusensis, indicating less population substructure. The structuring within P. lilfordi has since been described in detail, but the pattern within P. pityusensis is still poorly-known. We have now sampled 15 insular populations of Podarcis pityusensis from Ibiza and Formentera and one introduced population, Murada, in Palma de Mallorca. A total 61 individuals were analyzed (n=2-5 for each locality). We sequenced five fragments of the mitochondrial DNA: 12S rRNA, cytochrome b (two regions obtained separately), control region and an 800 bp (ND) fragment that included part of the ND1 gene, three tRNA genes, tRNAIle, tRNAGln, and tRNA Met and part of the ND2 gene. The total length of mitochondrial sequence analyzed for each animal was 2382 bp. We obtained the following measures of genetic diversity: Haplotype (gene) diversity and its sampling variance, Nucleotide diversity, Pi (p), the average number of nucleotide differences per site between two sequences and its sampling variance, Theta (per site) that for mitochondrial DNA is 2Nm, where N is the effective population size of females. We have also calculated, for each fragment, a haplotype network using the probability under parsimony criterion. The results indicate much lower levels of mtDNA structuring diversity among P. pityusensis populations compared with P. lilfordi. The networks obtained for each gene in P. pityusensis show no evidence of missing internal nodes, in contrast with P. lilfordi, which is suggestive of very recent separation of populations. The differing levels of diversity between the two species could be explained by the differences in area of Ibiza and Formentera. They are smaller, more ecologically uniform, and will have been subject to fewer historical periods of island separation due to lowering of sea-levels than in Mallorca, Menorca and Cabrera.

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A les illes Balears hi ha representades dues espècies endèmiques de sargantanes: Podarcis lilfordi (illes Gimnèsies) i Podarcis pityusensis (illes Pitiüses). A cada illa o illot s’ha produït diferenciació, i la més fàcil d’observar és la morfològica. Són espècies molt valuoses per a l’estudi de l’evolució, ja que, juntament amb el ferreret, són els únics representants vius de la fauna prehumana a les Illes; la resta de vertebrats actuals han estat introduïts a partir de l’arribada dels humans a les illes Balears. Les tècniques de seqüenciació de DNA han permès mesurar la divergència genètica entre les poblacions de P. lilfordi i determinar les relacions filogenètiques en aquesta espècie.

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Two endemic species of Podarcis inhabit the Balearic archipelago in the Mediterranean: Podarcis lilfordi in the Gymnesic island group (Mallorca, Menorca, Cabrera and associated islets) and Podarcis pityusensis in the Pityusic group (Ibiza, Formentera and surrounding islets). They originated from range fragmentation of their common ancestor during the reflooding of the Mediterranean after the opening of the Strait of Gibraltar some 5.33 Ma years ago. Subsequent major changes in sea level have occurred, particularly during glacial periods of the Pleistocene, but these have not been sufficient to unite the two main island groups again. The last major ice ages, the Riss (200.000 years ago) and the Würm (25.000 years ago) were the most intense. Here we address interspecific evolution within the former species. Podarcis lilfordi is found on islands and islets off the coast of Mallorca and Menorca (including the Cabrera archipelago). It became extinct on these main islands during the past few thousand years. However 43 different insular populations of the endangered P. lilfordi still survive: 11 from islets around Mallorca, 16 from Menorcan islets and 16 from the Cabrera archipelago. A total of 118 individuals were analyzed, two or three from each locality. We sequenced five fragments of mitochondrial DNA: 12S rRNA, cytochrome b (two regions obtained separately), control region and an 800 bp (ND) fragment that included part of the ND1 gene, three tRNA genes, tRNAIle, tRNAGln, and tRNA Met and part of the ND2 gene. The total length of mitochondrial sequence analyzed for each animal was 2382 bp. We analyzed the spatial component of the genetic diversity using Nested Clade Phylogeographic Analysis (NCPA) and examined dispersal patterns using coalescent-based analyses of historical migration to investigate the processes that may have lead to the current phylogeographic patterns. Four unconnected parsimony networks were obtained: (I) all Menorcan populations, (II) Dragonera, Malgrats and Toro islands (Western Mallorca), (III and IV) the remaining populations from Cabrera and Mallorca. Within network I, contiguous range expansion was inferred for both main clades. Populations from western Mallorca (II) have undergone historical allopatric fragmentation events following isolation around the start of the Pleistocene. Populations from Cabrera appear to have become isolated from north and south Mallorca more recently. Clades within networks III and IV showed some allopatric fragmentation and restricted gene flow (isolation by distance) among islands from Cabrera, as well as long distance dispersal between the Cabrera archipelago and southern Mallorca. The genetic effects of bottlenecks cannot be discarded in most of the smaller populations, some of these with a reduced population size. Historical gene flow was estimated using MIGRATE. We have only obtained clear evidence of asymmetrical gene flow between networks III and IV. In Network I, we observed a South-North gene flow between the two clades (3-1 and 3-2) with haplotypes from Menorca. Between the two clades (4-1 and 4-2) belong to network IV gene flow was virtually symmetrical.

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The seed dispersal system of Cneorum tricoccon, a shrub with a distribution restricted to the western Mediterranean area, was examined in the Balearic Islands. The endemic lizards, Podarcis lilfordi and Podarcis pityusensis (Lacertidae), consume important quantities of fruit of the plant, acting as a legitimate dispersers on the islands where they are present.

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The alteration of a habitat such as that caused by the introduction of exotic animal species that displace the native ones, reducing their populations or leading them to extinction, can result in the disruption of species interactions which may have evolved during millions of years. The insular ecosystems are especially vulnerable to such disturbances, as they are usually less complex and have a lower number of species than the continental ones. In the present work I document the consequences of the disruption of plant-disperser interactions, caused by the introduction of carnivorous mammals in the Balearic Islands, for the populations of two shrub species: Cneorum tricoccon L., with a distribution restricted to the western Mediterranean, and Daphne rodriguezii Texidor, endemic from Menorca island. Whereas carnivores have replaced ⁄ the native dispersers (lizards) of the former, notably modifying its distribution -especially in Mallorca-, the plant-lizard mutualism disruption seems to have been dramatic for the second species, drastically reducing its populations except in an islet where lizards still persist.

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The disappearance of native seed dispersers due to anthropogenic activities is often accompanied by the introduction of alien species, which may to some extent replace the ecological service provided by the extinct ones. Yet, little empirical evidence exists demonstrating the evolutionary consequences of such alien “replacement.” Here, we document the conflicting selection exerted on seed size by two native lizards (Podarcis lilfordi and P. pityusensis) and an alien mammal species (Martes martes), all acting as legitimate seed dispersers of the Mediterranean relict Cneorum tricoccon. While lizards mostly exerted a negative directional selection on seed diameter, especially P. pityusensis, the much larger pine marten exerted positive selection on seed size. Our findings suggest that this among‐disperser variation in the selection regimes, together with the occurrence of spatial variation in the presence of each seed disperser, help to create the geographical variation observed for seed size of C. tricoccon. To our knowledge, this is the first empirical evidence showing opposing selective pressures between native and alien species in the seed dispersal process in an invaded ecosystem.

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The loss or decline of vertebrate frugivores can limit the regeneration of plants that depend on them. However, empirical evidence is showing that this is still very scarce, as functionally equivalent species may contribute to maintain the mutualistic interaction. Here, we investigated the long-term consequences of the extinction of frugivorous lizards on the population persistence of a Mediterranean relict shrub Cneorum tricoccon (Cneoraceae). We examined the demographic parameters among 26 insular and mainland populations, which encompass the entire plant distributional range, comparing populations with lizards with those in which these are extinct, but in which alien mammals currently act as seed dispersers. Plant recruitment was found to be higher on island populations with lizards than on those with mammals, and the long-term effects of the native disperser`s loss were found in all vital phases of plant regeneration. The study thus gives evidence of the cascading effects of human-induced changes in ecosystems, showing how the disruption of native ecological processes can lead to species regression and, in the long term, even to local extinctions.

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There is a census of groups of lizards in some of the small islands of the Balearics, obtained by method of simplified successive suppression. The results are coherent with the observations in 50% of the cases. The minimum known group is of 6 ex. in the small islet of Fornol (Cabrera). The highest density corresponds to Escull Vermell in the group of Ses Bledes in Ibiza with 50 ex. in 350 m2 (1428 ex/Ha).

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In the tortoise Testudo graeca, the lizards Lacerta dugesi and Lacerta pityusensis, and the snake Natrix natrix, the innervation of the testicular interstitial tissue was studied by light and electron microscopy, the acetylcholinesterase (ache) technique, the Falck-Hillarp method for the detection of catecholamines, and the application of 6-hydroxydopamine. The intertubular spaces of the reptilian testes studied contain adrenergic nerve fibers the amount and distribution of which varies considerably both in various species and in various stages of the reproduction cycle. Nerve fibers do not enter the seminiferous epithelium. Fluorescence microscopy of the lizard testis reveals catecholaminergic varicosities which are mainly arranged around blood vessels, but do not show obvious connexions to Leydig cells. Ache-positive fibers are equally distributed in lizard testes surrounding each seminiferous tubule. In Natrix natrix ache-positive fibers are irregularly spread among groups of tubules, without showing a definite relation to Leydig cells either. By electron microscopy bundles of unmyelinated axons and axon terminals can be more easily detected in the testes of immature animals than in adult. Terminals of nerve fibers containing small (400–500 Å in diameter) and large (800–1400 Å) dense-cored vesicles and sometimes small clear vesicles establish contacts with Leydig cells. Three types of contact are described. 1. “Contacts” par distance at a distance of about 2000 Å and basal lamina interposed; 2. membranous contacts having a 200 Å gap only between axolemma and Leydig cell plasmalemma; 3. invaginations of terminals into Leydig cell perikarya. The latter may exhibit surface specialisations, which strongly resemble postsynaptic membrane thickenings. Experiments using 6-hydroxydopamine underline the adrenergic character of testicular nerve fibers, which can be regarded as another example of non-cholinergic, ache-positive neurons. In the testis of the immature tortoise profiles of axons occur which probably represent purinergic, ache-positive neurons.

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The presence of cholinergic nerve terminals was demonstrated in the interrenal gland of the lizards Lacerta dugesi and Lacerta pityusensis. Terminals were more numerous in the subcapsular than in the central zone.

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We tested the hypothesis that the number of presacral vertebrae in lacertid lizards has evolved to meet requirements set by the structural habitat. The idea was that lizards from cluttered habitats (densely vegetated areas, stony walls and hills, rocks) would be aided by a flexible backbone with many vertebrate, ensuring manoeuvrability, whereas lizards from open habitats would require stiffer vertebrate columns, with relatively few vertebrae, favouring speed and acceleration capacity. In contrast to earlier endings in fishes and snakes, evolution of vertebral number and body size was uncorrelated in lacertid lizards. Body size also did not differ between structural habitat types (open areas, densely vegetated areas, vertical elements). Traditional analysis of variance suggests strong differences in vertebral counts between species from open areas and cluttered areas, the latter having higher numbers of presacral vertebrae. When adequate phylogenetic analyses are used, differences remain significant although the level of significance is considerably lower. Tests of the mechanistic relationships between vertebral number, bending ability, and manoeuvrability, and assessment of the relative importance of manoeuvrability and speed in habitats with varying degrees of impediment are needed to reveal the evolutionary path that has led to the differences in vertebral number.

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Biological invasions are one of the main causes of vertebrate extinction in insular systems. Many of the species found in these environments are endemic and key species for the ecosystems, and have a very important ecological and cultural function, which could be threatened by the introduction of invasive species. This is the case on the island of Ibiza. Currently, the Ibiza wall lizard (Podarcis pityusensis) is being seriously threatened by the introduction of the horseshoe whip snake (Hemorrhois hippocrepis) from the mainland. Due to the predation pressure that the expansion of this invasive snake exerts on the Ibiza wall lizard, many lizard populations have started to become locally extinct in areas where they were once very common. Despite this situation, there could be a solution for these lizards in places commonly negatively associated with biodiversity: urban areas. In this study, we aim to analyse the function of urban areas as possible urban refuges for the Ibiza wall lizard populations. Through the sampling of urban and periurban areas of 18 localities distributed along the island of Ibiza, we have studied the effects of the level of urbanisation and the presence of snakes on the abundance of the Ibiza wall lizards. Our results indicate that urban areas act as refuges for this endemic lizard species in areas where the invasive snake thrives. Outside these urban refuges, the abundance of lizards is severely affected by the presence of the horseshoe whip snake. The abundance of Ibiza wall lizards not only seems to benefit from urban areas in snakeinvaded zones, but also seems to have a positive effect in places where lizard populations still persist in noninvaded periurban environments. The conservation and urban ecology implications of these results could be of great interest, both for the island system of Ibiza and for other systems subject to biological invasions, which are expected to become increasingly common over the years due to globalisation.

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In this paper a discussion of the systematics of the Iberian small lizards assigned to the genus Podarcis is presented. The existence of a common ancestor close to Podarcis murals is suggested, being supported the Klemmer`s model of glacial refuge (1957). It is pled that the Würm`s glaciation was the major determinant of the selective pressures that led to the appearance of all the local forms. The constraints imposed by the last glaciation would have cused the geographival isolation of some populational nulei. These, by means of the founder effect and in the face of different selective pressures, would have originated different genetic units. Amosaic distribution conditioned by a group of selective pressures as the nature of the substratum, altitude, temperature and salinity is suggested for the species of the genus Podarcis. Behaviour is presented as a determinant of these lizards very high morphological variability. Finnally, some approaches, which are believed to contribute to clarify this problem, are suggested.

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In the Mediterranean basin, the yellow-legged gull Larus cachinnans has undergone a widespread demographic increase for the past 30 years. Owing to its high ecological adaptability, its aggressive behaviour and its abundance, this gull is often considered to be a pest. The authors review and analyse the impacts of the expansion of the yellow-legged gull on fauna and flora in the Mediterranean area. Despite the relatively limited number of both intensive and general studies, it clearly appears that the population explosion has had a very diverse and severe effect on the ecosystem as a whole (flora, vertebrates, interspecific competition, extinction-colonization processes). The most serious damage has occurred around the largest breeding colonies to the detriment of fragile, rare or very restricted plant and animal species. Thus, from the point of view of fauna and flora conservation, the yellow-legged gull can, for the moment, be considered to be locally superabundant. Control measures are often very onerous and necessitate heavy manpower and material resources. Additional extensive investigations will be necessary to assess the future development of yellow-legged gull populations and their impact on natural environments.

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Two modes of sex determination occur in squamates: genotypic sex determination (GSD) and temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD). Within each of these two major modes, there are many different variants, or mechanisms. Male heterogamety, female heterogamety, multiple sex chromosome systems, and homomorphic sex chromosome systems are all types of GSD found in squamates. Two patterns of TSD have been reported. Only three snakes have been investigated for their sex-determining mechanisms, each having GSD, although incubation temperature does cause differential mortality and affects post-hatching physiology. Less than 50 lizard species have been investigated, but there is considerable diversity in the sex-determining mechanisms reported thus far. Apparently, TSD (and/or GSD) has evolved multiple times within a given taxon. Presently, both GSD and TSD are found in the Agamidae, Eublepharidae, and Gekkonidae, and possibly in the Iguanidae, Lacertidae, and Varanidae as well. Only GSD has been reported for the Scincidae and Teiidae. Correlations within the Eublepharidae suggest an adaptive explanation for the evolution of sexdetermining mechanisms; a shift from male-larger dimorphism to female-larger (or no sexual size dimorphism) is accompanied by a shift in sex-determining mode. These shifts are in agreement with similar correlations observed in turtles.